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STITUTE LIBRARY 
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aE X Ne EK 
HAND BOOK 


(Cotton Edition 


BY THE 
RESEARCH STAFF 
OF 
IE. F. Houcuton & Co. 


First Edition 
Illustrated 
Price $1.50 Net 


PHILADELPHIA 
E. F. HOUGHTON & COMPANY 
1925 








Copyricut 1925 


E. F. Houcuron & Co: 
PHILADELPHIA 


FOREWORD 


ELIEVING that the Textile Industries would be 

interested in a Hand Book that would give inform- 
ation in detail of the many processes through which 
Cotton, Silk, Wool and other fibres pass during their 
manufacture into articles useful to mankind, the E. F. 
Houghton Research Staff offers this their first edition on 
this interesting field. 


This first edition is devoted to Cotton and its manu- 
facture into cloth. 


Other editions are to follow on the bleaching, finish- 
ing and dyeing of cotton as well as silk and wool. 


These works are all based on data and results accum- 
ulated by the Research Department. 


We take this opportunity to express appreciation to 
the many mills and individuals who thru their cooper- 
ation made this work possible. 


As further developements of our research work into 
textile products and processes are completed, new 
editions or supplements of this book will be published. 


pe F. HOUGHTON & CoO. 








PabiEE OF CONTENTS 





PART ONE 
Chapter _ -Page 
PEE CAM MEEPOOUCTION <6 Ai. ok Sir hee ee ie ee ba bees 3 
SOM ee ee A Sk ye ae es Slee ys dea ba BS 18 
imeeetassiiveation and *Gradingia. . te. es es cena lereee- 26 

PART TWO 

MANUFACTURE OF COTTON 
PML esc mire Ol Y alts cae... Gok lhe ba eee bee de 25 ihe 
es er lec Gt es SR Sh ow on cg 50 
Sk CCEA NDZ coe Se OR oe na a gC 54 
WU FESS aes = (7 A a ee nae 5g 
Mie Gl rea ROVING, bo. G<..0lcsea kd ovis baa pees a oeas 63 
SRM OLN EE Ce he ele ORES pues van 67 
Rem CIRC enh ee ie ood kd cs Bist a SO RR Se 76 
DNRC STTEY TSS la ei go a te 78 
Pe eciasnitie Ol,Warp: YaINS:......6..05 60500 vou we aer cue 81 
Pe OTN STCLON OL SEZ) gis: cians os divin detelv simone Hapenabaeeart 84 
Poy emeAgiaiyses, of sized and Unsized Yatrns........./..:2.5.° 92 
SIRES HI 1 Oi egal te en ean ar erent Lees 100 
MM TEAL ATOM Of O1ZC2 od ii 25a) sas ctvavea See olla Wawa ay a 2 vas 113 
RMR a ROIs SE ee eel eda bin tee ee eed aa es ges le? 
PART THREE 
MANUFACTURE OF CLOTH 

ETAL” LTTE Rec SN a a a a a ae Nf, 136 
CEU 58 TS UNCON, ee nae ao ane Sahara ere ee 139 

PART FOUR 
Pax mmecalculations- tor Cotton. Mills. 22.2... 40-05 was cans ged ee 141 
. PAU LER MRM EN Prec. oie ite Surin tet ured Gaccny cats aa See pee 152 

APPENDIX 


Photo-Microscopic Views of Cotton Yarn—Cross Sections .... 158 


Plate 


It] 


IV 


VI 


VII 


LISTOF- PLATES 





Classification and Grading of Cotton........ 


Analyses of Sized and Unsized Yarns...... 


Samples Nos. 1 to 6 


Analyses of Sized and Unsized Yarns...... 


Samples Nos. 7 to 9 


Analyses of Sized and Unsized Yarns...... 


Samples Nos. 10 to 12 


Cross Sections of Sized Yarns Magnified.... 


Samples Nos. 2 to 6 


Cross Sections of Sized Yarns Magnified.... 


Samples Nos. 8 to 9 


Cross Sections of Sized Yarns Magnified.... 


Samples Nos. 11 to 12 


Opposite Page 
32 


ABIES 





Page 
Length and Diameter of the Principal Cotton Fibres.... 6 


Table Showing Comparison of World’s* Production of 
ioetconeand: United States Production::....)...<.... 10 


Cotton Production in 500-Pound Gross Weight Bales by 


Results of Tests of Three Bobbins of Grey Yarn and Nine 
Pre LESEO OT ZCO IN IAL I etcceast ss San Ha weed ee aie he 05 


Table of Starch Characteristics under Microscope....... 106 


Figure 


48 
49 
50 
51 
a2 
53 
54 
55 
56 
58 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS—Continued 


Page 
Spinning Frame—Sectional View......:........-+.+--- 70 
Ring Spinning.....--- ose r ra. vee oe 69 
Mule Spinners. i... 39 5%) ee ee ee 7A 
Spooler....2. iso N20 i. 252. ee 73 
Spooler—Sectional View... 34... 12) eee 74 
Slasher Warper.....0.2.¢ 5 400) ou er 78 
Beam Warper.....¢.00:25 03m) os oo 72 
Slasher. 70.6.6 spose ced in ties « eer 83 
Yarns Treated with Various Softeners) 0.00 71 
Micro-Photograph of Starches: 


(a) Rice, (b) Wheat, (c) Tapioca, (d)"Poratou sae 107 
(e) Sago Starch, (f) Arrowroot Starch, (g) Corn Starch 108 


59 (a) Corn Starch Starting to Paste, (b) Corn Starch Pasted, 
(c) Wheat Starch Starting to Paste... = ee 110 
59- (d) Wheat Starch Completely Pasted, (e) Potato Starch 
Starting to Paste, (f) Potato Starch Completely Pasted 111 
60 Cross Section View of Sized Cotton Yara) eons 1s 
(Showing almost perfect penetration of the size. Dark 
portion indicates size. Note thorough penetration of 
individual fibres in the center of yarn.) 
60a Cross Section View of Sized Cotton Yarne seen 116 


(Showing a poorly sized yarn with very little pene- 
tration of size. Dark portion indicates size.) 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS—Continued 


Figure Page 
60b Cross Section View of Sized Cotton Yarn.............. Ri 
(Showing poor penetration of size with a large per- 
centage of the size deposited on surface of yarn. Dark 
portion indicates size.) 


PR NEO a oe ee esd kes ele wo hak WG 123 
63 Plain Loom—Specimen of Weaving.................0. 124 
Pama ioom—sectiOhal View... 5... cs cee ae ae i 
oo Sei oie a ee a 126 
See OFT LOOIM. 4,5 005 6c nk cuits es eee oe Wide: 7 
64 Dobby Loom—Specimen of Weaving.................. 128 
Bre AS ae ae 128 
rata © OLCOl OOM en. coc.) ee ws bee ee ee wees 129 
66 Jacquard Loom—Specimen of Weaving................ 130 
Game romiinea@soecction Fis) 66... 60.6 wee a pee bos hee 130 
MOET OCS S200 ba ce: sn ep sheds Bias asad Oa Ae we OAs [sal 
69 Specimen of Cotton Warp and Silk Filling—Woven on a 

Er reen ORM Sd pre nee ehh 1 Whan.h ang 9 Pees ei ee ie 
Melee acured pection Pic. 69 a... 66.00. bec Pe oes eam hae eee 132 
me asp automatic Stop. Motion... 6... .c.%4¢..5.00sn ee. 133 


72 to 79 Cross Sections of Cotton Yarn—Appendix.. 158 to 165 





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rid, 


TEXTILE HAND BOOK 


fee) IN 
we TON <PRODUCTION 





ry 





Genk lER | 
COTTON PRODUCTION 


OTTON is a vegetable fibre obtained from a plant 

that is commonly called the cotton plant but which 

is identified scientifically as belonging to the Malvacez or 
Mallow family and being of the genus Gossypium. 


It is very closely related to the common garden Holly- 
hock (Althza Rosea) and practically all of the species 
are shrubs or small trees. 


The botanical names of cotton are seven 1n number. 


The family name is Gossytium of which there are the 
following varieties: 


1. Gossypium barbadense—Sea Island, Egyptian and 
Peruvian cotton. 

. Gossypium herbaceum—South Asia, China, Indta. 

. Gossypium hirsutum— Uplands United States cotton. 

. Gossypium arboreum—Ceylon, Arabia, etc. 

. Gossypium peruvianum— Peruvian cotton. 

. Gossypium tahitense—Tahiti and other Pacific Island 
cottons. 

7. Gossypium sandwichense—Sandwich Island cotton. 


ON Ut Ee W LO 


It is distinctly a warm climate plant and is grown in 
all parts of the earth between the latitudes of 45° N. and 
aS oS. 


The fibre is a hairy like material which grows around 
the seeds of the species. As seen under the microscope 
it is a long narrow tube, varying, according to the variety 


in diameter from about .0005”’ to .0009’’. 


4 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 





Photo, Coovert, Memphis 
PUG e2: COTTON PLANT 


The length of fibre varies from about 5%’ which is 
known as Upland or short “‘staple”’ cotton, to about 244”, 
the latter being of the Sea Island variety. 


Tt is upon the length of the fibre or the “‘staple” that 
the value of a lot of cotton depends. The long staples 
are, of course, more valuable than the short staples. 


COTTON PRODUCTION 


Cn 





US: Dept. of Agr: Photo, Coovert, Memphis 
alGraeso 3 COTTON PLANT 


The plant, when full grown, reaches a height from 1 
to 3 feet. The blossoms are of five petals and after 
blooming, change from cream white to red, redish blue 
and finally to a purplish blue. After three days of 
blooming the petals fall from the plant and the formation 
of the pod or boll commences. 


6 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


LENGTH AND DIAMETER OF THE PRINCIPAL 
COTTON FIBRES 





Variety Length of Staple Average Diameter 
in Inches in Inches 
Maximum Minimum 
Sea Islands (U. S.) 1.80 1.41 .000640 
New Orleans (U. S.) Lebo .88 .000775 
Texas Guns) lee? .87 .000763 
Upland (U. Sa) 1.06 81 .000763 
Egyptian or Arizona Egypt. (U. S.) 1.50 
Egyptian 1.52 1.30 -000655 
Brazilian 133% 1.03 .000790 
Indian: 
Native 1.02 AO .000844 
American Seed 21 95 .000825 
Sea Island Seed 1.65 1.36 .000730 





(U.S. Dept. of Agr.) 


The pod is full grown in about five weeks. The fibre 
is contained in a number of cells divided by walls of thin 
membrane. The cotton fibre grows upon the seed as a 
beard, and the cotton fibre hangs out after the boll has 
burst and it is dried and matured in the sun and wind. 
When a sufhcient number of the bolls are fully open, 
the cotton is picked and sent to the Gin. 


The English word cotton is derived from the Arabic 
Katan, probably because the Arabs were the biggest 
traders in cotton when it was first introduced into Europe. 


The original source of cotton is not definitely known. 
It apparenily evolved independently on the Continents 
of Asia, Africa and South America. 


We learn from reliable sources, however, that cotton 
was first used by the Hindoos, as early as 800 B.C. It 
was from India that cotton found its way to Europe. 


The Indians and Hindoos were the first to recognize 
the importance of cotton and the possibility of producing 
cloth and garments from it. 


COTTON PRODUCTION 


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8 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 





U.S. Dept. of Agr. FIG. 32- COTTON BOLES 


We read of the importance and value of Indian cloth 
when it was first brought to Europe. This was cotton 
cloth which assumed the name of the country of its 
manufacture. 


It would seem logical, then, to accept India as the 
source of cotton and cotton manufacture, so far as the 
present day’s evolution 1s concerned. 


India is outranked as a cotton producing country to- 
day, only by the United States. 


Although climatic conditions restrict the cultivation 
of cotton in the United States, to a group of states con- 
sisting of less than one-quarter of the total area of the 
country, it furnishes the raw material for one of our 
most important industries and comprises from one- 
quarter to one-third of our total exports. 


COTTON PRODUCTION ) 


In 1733, the cultivation of cotton in the Carolinas 
began and in 1748 the first export of cotton took place; 
about twenty bales being the quantity shipped. 


In the early period of cotton culture great difficulty 
was experienced in separating the cotton from the seed, 
the work being done by hand. 


Naturally, the production of clean cotton was ex- 
ceedingly slow. One pound of clean staple being the 
average daily production per picker. 


The first gin was invented in 1742. In 1772 the roller 
gin was brought into use, the production of these machines 
was about 20 or 30 pounds per day. These machines 
were improved so that in 1790 the production was from 
60 to 70 pounds per day. 


Eli Whitney, a native of Massachusetts, who went to 
South Carolina in his early life, foresaw the advantage 
to be derived from a speedier method for separating the 
seed from the cotton and conceived his famous Cotton 
Gin, for which he received a United States Patent in 1793. 
(See illustrations of Whitney Saw Gin in Chapter II 
“Ginning’’.) 


The exportation of cotton increased very rapidly after 
the invention of the saw gin. ‘The exportation in 1793 
was 487,600 pounds. In 1794, the first year of the 
Whitney Gin, the exportation was 1,600,000 pounds and 
in. 1/96, two years later, the production had increased 


to 10, 000, 000 pounds. 


The cotton known commercially as American is suited 
for medium numbers of yarn. It is usually clean, fairly 
regular in staple and is one of the most reliable cottons 
for manufacturing. The quantity of American cotton 
produced is greater than that of all other parts of the 
World, the usual crop being from 10 to 16 million bales 
of 500 pounds each. 


10 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


TABLE SHOWING COMPARISON OF WORLD’S 
PRODUCTION OF COTTON AND UNITED STATES’ 





PRODUCTION 
Year World Production United States Production 
1900 15,893,591 10,123,000 
1901 15,926,048 9,510,000 
1902 17,331,503 10,631,000 
1903 17,278,881 9,851,000 
1904 21200581075 13,438,000 
1905 18,342,075 10, 575, "000 
1906 22,183,148 135 274, 000 
1907 18,328,613 11,107,000 
1908 23,688,292 13,242,000 
1909 20,679,334 10,005,000 
1910 22,433,269 11,609,000 
1911 21,754,810 15,693,000 
1912 19,578,095 13,703,000 
1913 21,271,902 14,156,000 
1914 23,804,422 16,135,000 
1915 17,659,126 11,192,000 
1916 18,008,804 11,450,000 
1917 16,323,395 11,302,000 
1918 17,186,107 12,041,000 
1919 18,349,464 11,421,000 
1920 20,798,790 13,440,000 
1921 15,072,067 7,954,000 
1922 ert eae aie ea eee 9,729,000 
| he Ae Tas rn ee ee as ty eM ea a 10,128,000 











(U. S. Dept. of Agr.) 


In tropical countries the cotton plant is perennial but 
in the United States the winter temperature is low enough 
to kill the plant and new plants must be raised each year. 


The cotton producing belt of the United States is that 
area occupied by the states of North Carolina, South 
Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisi- 
ana, Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Western Tennessee 
and the extreme southeastern point of Virginia. Some 
cotton is also raised in Arizona. 


In the cultivation of cotton, the most favorable soil 
is of a sandy loam formation, well drained, but capable 


of retaining a uniform supply of moisture throughout 
the season. 


COTTON PRODUCTION 1B 


The preparation of the land starts in December and 
continues to March or April. The time of sowing the 
seed depends upon the climate of the various parts of 
the cotton country. 


cA) 


AY EE IP, Fat 
So, La a 
eee cK April 
re ox geges KENTU April 21 
—_ = 5 , 
Aongarona “ap OS 58 FR 3 
ox Sz 


RI > 


March 21 


March 11 





FIG. 6, BOUNDARY OR LIMIT OF COTTON BELT 


In Southern Texas planting takes place about March 
Ist, Northern Texas March 15th, Georgia March 21st 
to April 10th, and Tennessee April 15th to May Ist. 


The seed is thickly sown in rows from three to four 
feet apart, and covered with a thin layer of earth. In 
about twelve days the plant makes its appearance. 


The plant is allowed to grow to about four inches in 
height when the chopping out period commences, which 
consists of thinning out the plants until they are about 
fifteen inches apart, care being taken to retain those 
plants which are the hardiest or which have the best 
estand.- 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


COTTON PRODUCTION IN 500-POUND GROSS WEIGHT BALES, 
BY“STATESSI915.1 01922. 









































STATE 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 

1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 

bales bales bales bales bales bales bales bales bales bales 

Virginia 23 25 16 27 19 25 23 22 17 25 
North Carolina 792 931 699 655 618 898 830 925 776 852 
South Carolina 1S 7283 15:34: 1,134 932 12237 1,570 1,426 1,623 (55 530 
Georgia DEST 2,718 1,909 1,821 1,884 Clee 1,660 1,415 787 725 
Florida 59 81 48 4] 38 29 16 18 ial 25 
Alabama 1,495 1-751 1,021 535 518 801 713 663 580 835 
Mississippi Salt 1,246 954 812 905 1,226 961 895 813 1,010 
Louisiana 444 449 341 443 639 588 298 388 279 357 
Texas 3,945 4,592 Se 2e 3°726 3125 2,697 3,099 4,345 2,198 3,290 
Arkansas 1,073 1,016 816 1,134 974 987 884 1,215 797 1,040 
Tennessee 379 384 303 382 240 330 310 5) 302 400 
Missouri 67 82 48 63 61 62 64 79 70 149 
Oklahoma 840 1,262 640. 823 959 SET 1,016 1,336 481 635 
California 23 50 29 44 58 67 56 75 34 34 
Arizona 2,200 6,187 3-200 ee ae 56 60 103 45 42 
All other 10 14 i 14 5 6 5 13 9 15 
United States 16,356 225322 14,392 11,450 Mies O2 12,041 11,421 13,440 7,954 9,964 














(U.S. De pt. of Agr.) 


COTTON PRODUCTION 


1S 


The blossoms appear in seven or eight weeks after 
planting; survive for about two days and then drop off 


the plant. 








aeelanvia Dee seipa 


After the blossoms 
drop off the boll is dis- 
covered, which gradually 
increases in size, turning 
from green to dark 
brown, until about five 
weeks after its appear- 
ance it bursts into sect- 
ions, each of which dis- 
closes a quantity of cotton fibre and seeds. 


A cotton plant may contain mature bolls, buds and 
flowers at the same time. 


The greatest present day menace to the cotton crop 
is the damage and loss caused by the ravages of the 


Boll Weevil. 


This is a beetle like insect, which when full grown is 


about one-quarter of an inch long. 


The color ranges 


from light yellow to dark gray or black, depending on 


the age of the insect. 


The insect appar- 
ently breeds in no 
plants other than the 
cotton plant. 


The Boll Weevil 
passes the winter as 
an adult or beetle. Its 
activities commence 
when the buds or 
squares start forming 
on the plant and con- 
tinues throughout the 
entire season, the 


back 


COTTON BOLL WEEVIL 


(About four times actual size) 





side 


14 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


insect attacking the boll when the squares have dis- 
appeared. 


It punctures and lays its eggs in the square or boll. 
The eggs hatch in about three days and the larve im- 
mediately begin to feed. 





U.S. Dept. of Agr. 
FIG, 8. WEEVIL LARVA INFECTED COTTON BOLL 


These infected squares or bolls become stunted in 
growth and dry up or rot and consequently are non- 
productive. 


COTTON PRODUCTION 15 


The larva passes through its total development, from 
the time the eggs are deposited until it becomes a full 
grown beetle, in a period of twenty-five days, after which 
it begins the production of another generation. 


In the early part of the season there is usually but one 
larva found in an infected square or boll, but later in the 
season, when most of the crop is infected several larvze 
may be found in a single boll. 


The squares or buds seem to be preferred as food and 
as places for depositing the eggs and as long as the supply 
of squares exists the bolls escape serious damage. 


There have been instances where these pests have 
absolutely destroyed whole fields of cotton where left 
unchecked, and their presence in a field commonly cuts 
the production fifty to sixty per cent. 


The value of the annual loss caused by the Boll Weevil 
in the United States has been estimated at $750,000,000. 


The original home of the insect was in Mexico. 


About 1892 it crossed the Rio Grande into Brownsville, 
‘Texas. 


It spread rapidly throughout that state and proceeded 
to branch out into the other states. Its range extending 
annually about one hundred miles, until today it has 
the entire cotton belt in its grip. 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


16 


FIG. 


9: 





SPREAD OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL 


V7 


GINNING 


HWA LITO NID ESV Td aly ot 


“ 


LVWO 


LOV 


el 


Ol 


‘OF) ULF) U0770/) SHUUNT 





CHA PLE? 
GINNING 


After the bolls have burst, and the cotton is ripe, it 
is picked by hand and taken to the gin. The picking 
season lasts about three months and 1s practically divided 
into two parts. The first picking is that of the bottoms 





FIG." 10. WHITNEY GIN 


of the plants, when the leaves are still green, and the 
second is the top of the plants. The latter may be late 
enough to have allowed the frost attack the plant, in 
which case the picking is considerably injured. 


The seed cotton as brought in from the field by the 
pickers contain about 2% seed by weight and % fibre. 


GINNING 19 


The cotton fibre is a hairy growth upon the seeds and 
clings to them tenaciously. This seed must be removed 
before the cotton is ready for use. 





Continental Gin Co. FIG. 11. MODERN GIN 


In the early days of the cultivation of cotton in the 
United States, there was no mechanical means of 
separating the seed from the cotton. 


The removal! of the seed from the cotton was all done 
by hand, which entailed much tedious labor. 


Whitney’s Gin was practically the original of the 
modern saw gin. 


The saw gin is the most widely used style of gin for 
the production of short staple cotton. 


20 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


It may be described as consisting of a series of circular 
saws with fine teeth, having a small part of their circum- 
ference projecting through a grid into a chamber con- 
taining the seed cotton. In revolving these saws catch 
hold of the cotton and tear it through the grid, the 
small grid openings preventing the seed from passing 
through. Revolving brushes then separate the cotton 
from the saw and it drops into a delivery hopper. 


ROLL BOX 





Continental Gin Co. 
BiG 2 SECTIONAL VIEW PLAIN GIN 


GINNING 21 


In revolving, these saws impale the cotton lint upon 
their sharp teeth, drawing it through the narrow grid. 
The latter openings are so narrow as to prevent the 
passage of the seed while permitting the passage of the 


fibre. 





U.S. Dept. of Agr. 
FIG. 14, LINT OR COTTON FIBRE 


bo 
bo 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


The lint passes through the gin into the delivery chute 
and then to the condensor, which gives it a final cleaning 
and forms it into a sheet. 














Photo, Coovert, Memphis 
RiGee. COTTON COMPRESS 


It is then dropped into a press box where it is pressed, 
wrapped, and tied into a bale of about 27 x 54 x 45 inches, 
and weighing about 500 pounds. 


This is known as a gin bale. 


The ginned seeds slide through a trough to a screw 
conveyor, by which they are transferred to the seed bin 
or seed house. ‘The farmer may desire to retain his seed 


GINNING 23 


for future planting, or again, may sell it for manufacture 
into cotton seed oil or meal. In the latter case the seed 
is conveyed to the seed house. 


The linting process is very widely used, whereby the 
short fibres are entirely removed from the cotton seed, 
leaving them smooth and clean. 


If the cotton is to be consumed in the immediate 
neighborhood, there is no further packing as it leaves 
the gin. 





FIG. 16, RELATIVE SIZE OF AMERICAN BALES 


In cases where the cotton is to be shipped to distant 
points by boat or rail, in order to facilitate handling and 
even piling, the bales are sent to a compressor which 
further reduces the gin bales to dimensions of 27 x 54 x 16.” 


Some cotton is also put into cylindrical bales in which 
the lap of cotton from the gin is tightly wound and 
when wrapped and tied presents a cylinder of uniform 
length and diameter. 


24 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


Where long staple cotton is ginned and it is very 
important to preserve the entire length of the fibre, the 
roller gin is used. 


The principle of the modern Roller Gin was con- 
ceived by the ancient Hindoos, and was long used by 
them in manufacturing cotton. 


The Roller Gin is a machine in which the seed cotton 
falling from a hopper comes in contact with the rough 
leather covering of a cylindrical roll. The cotton fibre 
adheres to the rough covering of the roll, and as the latter 
revolves, is drawn around upon its surface. Pressing 
against the leather covered roll is a “doctor” or smooth 
steel blade, which allows the fibre to pass on but prevents 
the seeds following and a separation takes place. 


The amount of clean staple produced by the Roller 
Gin in a given time is much less than that of the saw gin, 
but this, of course, is of little importance since it 1s 
essential to deliver the fine staple that is ginned by the 
Roller without the slightest reduction of its quality. 


As it leaves the Gin the cotton contains some leaf, 
plant, sand and a small quantity of broken seed. 


i) 
Or 


GINNING 





U. S. Dept. of Agr. 
ELG? 17. PRINCIPAL COMMERCIAL TYPES 


Combed lint of five important types—(1) Sea Island, (2) Egyptian, (3) upland 
long-staple, (4) upland short-staple, (5) Asiatic. (Sixth-sevenths natural size) 


CHAP TE Rasiit 
CLASSIFICATION and GRADING 


Cotton is classed according to the length of staple 
and source of production. 


American cotton may be divided into four classes: 


New Orleans or Gulf, Uplands, Texas and Mobile. 


New Orleans or Gulf Cotton. This cotton is grown in the 
basins of the Mississippi River in the states of Louisiana, 
Mississippi, Arkansas and Alabama. 


The name Gulf or New Orleans is given from the fact 
that the cotton is usually shipped to ports on the Gulf of 
Mexico, especially New Orleans. The name Gulf is 
usually used in this country and New Orleans in Europe. 


Gulf cotton may be divided into several other classes 
known as Memphis, Benders, Allen Seed, Peelers, etc. 
‘These names are used to denote certain styles or varieties. 


Memphis Cotton is shipped from Memphis and vicinity. 


Benders is the name given cotton grown on the bends 
of the Mississippi River. It is one of the best gulf 
cottons. Length 114’’. Suitable for yarns up to 60s and 
70s. 


Peelers. ‘Yhis cotton is of a bluish white color; the 
fibres are strong and silky, length of staple 11%” to 134” 
Good for yarns up to 100s. 


Allen Seed. This is the best of the Gulf cottons, it is 
a little longer than peeler, it is white in color, the fibres 
are fine silky and strong, length of staple 1144” to 1144”. 
It can be spun into yarn up to 150. 


CLASSIFICATION and GRADING 2h 


Upland Cotton is grown in the states of Georgia, North 
and South Carolina, Virginia and Alabama. It is of a 
creamy white color, the fibres are soft, elastic and pliable, 
but are not so well developed as the Orleans or Gulf. 
Suitable for warp or filling up to 45. 


Texas Cotton. Texas cotton is similar to Uplands but 
not as reliable, since in dry seasons it 1s liable to be harsh. 
The length of the staple is from 7%” to 114”, and is best 
adapted to warp yarns. 


Mobile. Mobile is the lowest grade of American 
cotton, it usually contains considerable short fibres and 
is very dirty, the fibre is about 1’’ long and is good for 
numbers to 30s. 


Sea Islands is the name used to indicate the United 
States Sea Island cotton. 


This cotton is grown on the islands of St. Helena, 
Edisto, Port Royal, James and John, off the coast of 
South Carolina, St. Simeon and Cumberland off the 
coast of Georgia and others. 


Sea Island cotton is recognized as the finest cotton 
grown, very careful attention being given to the culti- 
vation and ginning, quality being considered before 
quantity. 


The first Sea Island cotton grown was in South Carolina 


in 1790. 


While the best Sea Island cotton is grown on the 
islands, there is considerable grown on the mainland near 
the coast; this is known as Florida or Georgia Sea Islands. 


The Florida Sea Island is considered as being next 
in grade to the regular sea islands although some Georgias 
grown from fresh seed, the first year from the islands, 
commands a higher price than the Floridas. 


28 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK. 


Sea Island cotton has a rich creamy appearance, the 
staple is long, fine, strong and very silky with com- 
paratively regular convolutions. Length of staple 1s 
from 13%” to 2144”... This cotton is regularly spun into 
yarn up to 400s and for special purposes to 600s, and is 
claimed to have been spun into 2150s in London in 1851. 


Florida Sea Islands. This cotton is a lighter cream in 
color than the regular sea islands and is not quite so 
long or silky; it also has considerable more of the short 
fibre. Length of staple is 114” to 134”. It can be spun 
into yarn up to 200. 


Georgia Sea Islands. ‘This cotton is rather lighter cream 
than Floridas and is not so bright nor silky. Length of 
staple 114” to 134’, good for numbers up to 160s. 


Grade names used for Sea Island cotton: 


No. 1 Fancy No. 4 Extra Fine 
No. 2. Extra Choice No. 5 Fine 
No. 3. Choice No. 6 Medium Fine 


Anything lower is called Below No. 6. 


Grading Sea Island Cotton. The principal points 
upon which the price of Sea Island cotton is based 
are as follows: | 


Length and strength of staple 
Fineness of fibre 

Appearance as to brightness and color 
Cleanliness 

Freedom from injury by weather 
Good ginning 

Freedum from seeds 

Cracked seeds 

Leaf, crimp or gin cut, gin hammered 
Amount of waste 


Short fibre 


CLASSIFICATION and GRADING 29 


There is considerable Sea Island cotton grown outside 
of the U. S. A. The principal places are the Bahama 
Islands, Fiji Islands, Tahiti Islands, Polynesia Islands, 
Australia and Queensland. These cottons are not im- 
ported into the ‘United States. 


The total crop of Sea Island cotton was formerly from 


90,000 to 100,000 bales. 


This cotton takes a long time to mature and due to 
the boll weevil the crop has practically been exterminated 


falling from 117,000 bales in 1917 to 1868 bales in 1922. 


Meade Cotton. ‘This variety of cotton was originated 
in 1912 at Clarksville, Texas, by Rowland M. Meade, 
the purpose of which was to find a cotton that was 
suitable to replace the Sea Island cotton. 


It may be described as an early maturing, long staple, 
heavy cropping cotton attaining a length of about 15%” 


It usually matures in from 3 to 4 weeks less time than 
Sea Island, thus gaining this advantage in time over the 
boll weevil. 


The crop was practically allowed to be destroyed in 
the past years by some of the ginners who allowed the 
feed to become mixed at the gins generally upsetting the 
painstaking efforts of the plant bureau, the growing 1s 
now however, being taken up seriously, although the 
supply of pure seed remains small. 


The seeds are large and a brownish black and nearly 
smooth. Consequently it can be handled on the regular 
Sea Island gins. 


It will be noted that while Meade cotton is not on a 
par with Sea Island it is a fairly good substitute. 


30 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 
EGYPTIAN-COTTOM 


From the earliest time there has been a fine quality 
of cotton grown in the upper regions of the Nile, particu- 
larly in Abyssinia. Seed from this variety was brought 
into Lower Egypt about 1820 and from this time Egypt 
has been a regular exporter of cotton. 


Macc Jumel was the name given the first variety of 
cotton cultivated, this has experienced many changes 
gradually, changing its color to a yellowish brown. This 
new variety was known as Ashmouni from the valley of 
Ashmount where the change was first noticed. 


The principal varieties of Egyptian are Ashmouni, 
Mitafii, Zagora, Abassi, Nubarre, Sakel laridis and 
Pillion. 


For many years Ashmouni formed the bulk of the 


Egyptian crop, but at present it is composed mostly of 
Ashmouni, Zagora, Mitafifi, Nubarre and Sakellaridis. 


Mitafifi was discovered by a Greek merchant in the vil- 
lage of Mitafifi. A bluish green tuff at the end of the seed 
attracted his attention and upon planting it he found it 
to have decided advantages over Ashmouni. It is much 
hardier, yields a greater amount of lint to the seed, is 
of a darker brown, and the fibre is long, strong and fine 
to the touch. - 


Length 1 3/16” to 1 3/8’’. Suitable for yarns to 120s. 
Zagora is similar to Ashmouni or Uppers. 


Abbassi is of recent introduction and as yet is not very 
extensively grown. It was derived from Mitafifi. 


It is of a beautiful white color, is fine, silky and long 
though not as strong as Mitafif. The first two pickings 
command the highest price in the market. Length of 
staple 1 5/16” to 1144” 


CLASSIFICATION and GRADING 1 


Sakellarridies 1s a new variety of Egyptian cotton. It 
is very soft, smooth and silky, staples from 138” to 156”, 


good for yarns to 120s. It is being used to replace Sea 
Island. 


Grade names of Egyptian cotton. Extra Fine, Fine 
Good, Fully Good Fair, Good Fair, Fair, Middling Fair, 
Middling. 


The quality or grade of cotton is influenced by: 


1. Quantity of foreign or mechanical impurities present. 
2, Colo. 
3. Quality of ginning. 


In this country cotton is graded according to the 
following standards: 


Middling Fair 

Strict Good Middling 
Good Middling 
Strict Middling 
Middling 

Strict Low Middling 
Low Middling 

Strict Good Ordinary 
Good Ordinary 


ae et en es 


These grades cover all the white cotton grown in an 
average season. 


Cotton is often graded by comparison with standards 
prepared by the government. ‘This is particularly ad- 
visable where one has only occasional need for grading 
cotton and where practice and extensive experience in 
grading is lacking, as a reliable grader is one of consider- 
able experience, training and application. 


The grades above middling, therefore, bring a higher 
price than the current market prices and those below 
must accept a lower price. This may run as much as 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


a2 








GRADING OF STANDARDS 


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TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


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CLASSIFICATION AND GRADING OF COTTON 
bd, IR ACISU MRL 100! 














OOOO iE i hilt i BAERS REE 
scooontinesape eae 


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Pits 19: MIDDLING FAIR 





FIG. 21. GOOD MIDDLING : 


Fig. 19, Middling Fair, the highest, and Fig. 20, Good Ordinary, the lowest, 
of the official cotton standards of the United States. 


Fig. 21, Good Middling, Fig. 22, Middling, and Fig. 23, Low Middling grades 
cover the bulk of the white cotton grown in an average season 


(U.S. Dept. of Agr.) 





Pits, 20. GOOD ORDINARY y 





FIGs 23: LOW MIDDLING 


CLASSIFICATION and GRADING 33 


9/10 to 1 cent higher for middling fair and 1 8/10 to 


2 cents lower for good ordinary. 


Where the cotton is tinged, addition is made to the 
names of the above grades such as, Middling Off Color, 
Middling Yellowish or Blue Stained, etc. The coloring 


naturally reducing the value. 


The amount of mechanical impurities such as leaf, 
sand and dust influence considerably its value. 


The amount of leaf present usually depends upon the 
time of picking. If it is late in the season, when the 
foliage has been killed by the frost, it will contain much 
of the dried leaves and vegetation. 


A limited quantity of dust or sand is permissible. 
However, this limit is often exceeded which fact con- 
demns the cotton to a lower grade. 


Very often by means of a cleaning operation, before 
ginning, the normal amount of mechanical impurities 
are reduced. This naturally makes for cleaner and better 
looking cotton and hence improves its grade. 


Motes, which are immature seeds or cut seeds are found 
to a greater or less extent in cotton. Their presence tends 
to lower the grade of cotton. 


Neps or cut and broken fibres and gin cut cotton are 
caused by feeding the cotton to the gin too fast or by 
the gin being in bad order. Then, too, noils, consisting 
of short and generally immature fibres very often kink 
in the process of ginning. ‘They seriously affect the 
cotton and reduce its value materially. 


Cotton that averages 1%" in staple or above, with the 
exception of Sea Island and Egyptian cotton, is usually 
called “staple” cotton, while that which averages below 
1%” is called “short staple” cotton. 


3 


34 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


There is no fixed length of staple used as a basis in 
the markets for short staple. 


There is practically no difference in price between 
different lengths of cotton ranging between 34” to 1” if 
the other qualities are equal. 


However, cotton longer than 1” usually obtains a 
premium over the current prices, all other qualities 
being equal. 


These premiums may run from 11 cents on 1%” staple 
to 9 cents on 114” staple. 


TEXTILE HAND BOOK 


PART TWO 
MANUFACTURE of COTTON 





~ act 


GEAP EER LV: 
MANUFACTURE of YARN 


HE processes of the manufacture of cotton fibre into 

yarns beginning at the point of delivery of the com- 
pressed bale at the mill, can be grouped into nine stages, 
as follows: 


1. Preparation 


a. Opening 
b. Mixing 
c. Cleaning 
2. Carding 
a. Parallelizing fibre 
3. Combing 
a. Removing short fibre 
b. Cleaning 
c. Parallelizing fibre 
4, Drawing 


a. Parallelizing fibre 
b. Drawing out collected strands of silver 
5. Slubbing 
a. Further drawing out of collected strands 
b. Production of slight twist 
6. Secondary slubbing or intermediate 
a. Further drawing out of collected strands 
b. Further production of twist 
7. Roving frame 
a. Roving 
8. Spinning 
a. Final twist and draft in yarn 
9. Doubling or Twisting 
Twisting yarns together producing plied yarns 


38 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


PREPARATION—OPENING 


The cotton comes to the mill in the form of a highly 
compressed and tightly packed bale. 


It is contaminated with a number of mechanical im- 
purities such as sand, leaf, and a small amount of seed. 


The first process in the manufacture of cotton is the 
preparatory process, which subjects the cotton to the 
action of machines known as: 


Opener or Bale Breaker 
Picker 
Finishing Picker 





Whitin Machine Works 
FIG. 25 BALE BREAKER 


When the bale is opened the cotton is found to ell in 
a hard and matted state, due to the high pressure under 
which it was packed. 


MANUFACTURE of YARN 39 


The purpose of the preparatory process is to pull apart 
or break the hard lumps of cotton, produce a fluffy mass 
and also to free it from all mechanical impurities. 


The machines used in this process are all similar in 
construction and operation, each succeeding machine, 
of course, producing a better product. 





BiG: 26. BALE BREAKER—SECTIONAL VIEW 


The first of these machines is called the opener or bale 
breaker, which takes the hard lumps of cotton from the 
bale, pulls them apart or opens them and delivers a more 
or less fluffy mass of cotton. Fig. 26 shows in section a 
popular type of breaker known as the comber breaker. 


The hard lumps of cotton are fed to the machine either 
by hand or a mechanical device such as a moving lattice 
feed apron. It is dropped into a hopper A, the inclined 
floor of which is a grid through which any loose dirt falls. 
It slides down the incline and is engaged by the spiked 
traveling apron B. The cotton is carried by B up to C 
which acts as a doffer comb and throws back into hopper 


40 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


A the excess cotton. The remainder passes around and is 
knocked off the spiked apron by flap roller D. This 
action throws the cotton against grid FE with such force 
that considerable dirt is removed which drops through 
into chamber F. The cotton then drops onto traveling 
apron G which delivers the fluffed up cotton to either 
the picker or mixing room. H is an exhaust vent which 
carries off the light dirt and dust that is shaken out of 
the cotton by the evener roller C. 


A large number of mills practice mixing numerous bales 
of cotton together. One bale of cotton may differ very 
much from another in staple, color and impurities. These 
are influenced by the particular locality in which the 
cotton is raised and method of ginning. Mixing is 
essential where uniform yarn is desired. 


The mixing 1s often done in the breaker. A number 
of bales are opened and a small quantity is taken suc- 
cessively from each bale and fed to the breakers. The 
action of this machine thoroughly mixes the mass and 
delivers cotton of an average character of the original 
bales. It is then conveyed to the mixing room where it 
is evenly spread in bins and is usually left there for two 
or three days. 


These mixings are then dropped into a stack which 
guides it into the hopper of the picker. In cutting out 
portions of the pile of cotton to be fed to the picker a 
straight cut from top to bottom should be made, all of 
which should be fed to the stack before another cut is 
made. ‘This procedure further mixes the layers that are 
formed in piling the mixing bins. 


The treatment up to this point has opened the cotton 
to a considerable degree and loosened a large quantity 
of dirt. It is, however, in no condition yet for spinning 
and must be subjected to other machines to continue the 
work of opening and cleaning the cotton. 


Many mills subject the cotton to another machine 
similar to the breaker in design and purpose, which is 


MANUFACTURE of YARN 41 


known as the hopper feeder shown in section in Fig. 27. 
This particular machine is very similar to the breaker 
shown in Fig. 26, and is in fact used for the same general 
purpose as was the breaker. 


A is the chute or stack which conveys the mixed cotton 
from the mixing room and drops it into the traveling 
apron B. H is a feed roller which throws the cotton 
over into the apron as it drops from the chute. ‘The 
cotton is carried over and is engaged by the spiked 





FIG. 27. HOPPER FEEDER 


traveling apron C, which carries the cotton up to the 
evener roller D. This returns the excessive cotton to the 
receiving chamber. E is a stripper roller which strips 
the cotton from the apron and throws it against grid F 
with such force as to loosen a considerable portion of dirt 
and sand which drops through the grid into a dust box. 


The cotton passes down onto the traveling delivery 
apron I, which carries it out of the machine usually direct 
to the picker. _G acts as an evener roller. 


42 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


These machines usually have an automatic attach- 
ment which controls the flow of cotton into the receiving 
chamber. This is a feeler, an arrangement which, if the 
accumulation of cotton passes a certain depth, throws off 
the power operating B and H and thus stops the inflow 
of cotton until the surplus is used up. 





H. &3 B. American Machine Co. 
FIG. 28. SELF-FEEDING OPENER 





FIG. 29. SELF-FEEDING OPENER—SECTIONAL VIEW 


The next operation is that of the picker and is generally 
combined with the hopper feeder so that the fluffed or 
opened cotton passes direct to the picker. 


MANUFACTURE of YARN 43 


Such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 29, and is known 
as a combined picker and hopper feed. 


The cotton is deposited in chamber A from the mixing 
room. It then passes by means of the spiked apron B 
and stripper roller C through the passage D and on to the 
cage roller E which acts as a carrier and also separates 
some of the sand and dirt from the cotton. F is a stripper 
roller which strips the sheet of cotton from the cage and 
leads it between the feed rollers G and H. 


As the sheet of cotton is delivered by the rollers G 
and H it is engaged by the rapidly revolving blades of 
the picker beater I and is thrown with considerable force 
against the grid where more dirt and sand is knocked 
out of the cotton, while the good cotton passes out of the 
machine through the pipe K. 





H. & B. American Machine Co. 
FIG, 30 VERTICAL “‘CRIGHTON” OPENER 


44 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


Another type of picker is that shown in Figs. 30 and 31, 
which is known as Crighton Opener and in which the 
cotton is conveyed by the mixing stack to the receiving 
flue A. It is then drawn by suction produced by fan G 
into the chamber B where it comes in contact with the 























H.&5 B. American Machine Co. 
FIG. 31. VERTICAL OPENER—SECTIONAL VIEW 


rapidly revolving blades of the conical shaped beater. 
The high speed of the discs loosens up the cotton and 
the air suction, combined with the centrifugal force of 
the mass of cotton draws the entire mass up through the 
set of discs to the passage D. C is the beater casing 
perforated in order to allow the dirt that is loosened by 
the beater to pass out of the chamber. 


From the passage D the cotton passes over grid E 
which allows more of the loose dirt and sand to drop 
out of the cotton and it then passes on to the revolving 
cage F. More dust and dirt 1s sucked out of the cotton 


MANUFACTURE of YARN 45 


while it is on this cage. As the cage revolves the cotton 
is brought in contact with stripper roller H which strips 
the cotton from the cage and deposits it on traveling 
apron J. This carries it out of the machine either direct 
to the breaker picker or drops it on the floor. 





Whitin Machine Works 
FIG. 32. BREAKER LAPPER 


The cotton is fed to the breaker picker and lapper or 
breaker lapper usually direct from the picker. Fig. 32, 
shows a common type of this machine connected direct 
to the picker. When it is at a distance from the picker 
the cotton is conveyed by means of suction chutes to 
the breaker lapper. As the name of the machine imphes, 
its purpose is to further break or open the cotton and 
form it into a lap. 


46 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


In Fig. 33, A represents the porcupine picker beater. 
From the picker the cotton passes over grid B, where 
some of the remaining impurities drop out, and on to the 
screen dust cages C and D. There is a suction draft on 
the inside of these cages produced by fan E, the purpose 
of which is to draw the dust and dirt out of the sheet 
of cotton that 1s deposited on the outside. ‘These dust 
cages produce a uniform thickness of cotton lap. the 
purpose of which is to draw the dust and dirt out of the 
cotton and at the same time secure an even layer on 
the outside. They also act as condensers and form the 


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O+ 
AYU Wks bi swe 
23333 


FEG.233: BREAKER LAPPER—SECTIONAL VIEW 





cotton into a sheet or lap. ‘This lap is removed by the 
stripper roller F and guided to the feed roller G which 
pass it into the chamber where it is engaged by beater 
H and thrown against grid J, which removes more of 
the impurities. It then passes over dust grid K and on to 
a second pair of screen dust cages L and M suction in 
which is produced by fan N. The lap as formed on the 
cages L and M is removed by the stripper rollers O and 
consolidated by means of the rollers P, Q, R and S. It 
is then engaged by the fluted rollers T and U, where it 
is rolled up as shown into what is known as breaker laps. 


47 


MANUFACTURE of YARN 


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48 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


Up to this point the cotton has passed through machines 
that have opened it up and extracted many of the im- 
purities from it.. It is however by no means clean and 
it is further subjected to machines which free the cotton 
from practically all the remaining impurities. 


These machines are known as the intermediate lapper 
and finishing lapper. 


These two machines are identical in construction and 
operation and are similar to the breaker lapper. 


Fig. 35 shows the intermediate picker or lapper in 
detail. 


1, 2, 3 and 4 represent laps as taken from the breaker 
lapper. 


These are doubled, that is, fed four at once, in order 
to reduce the possibility of thin places occurring in the 
finished lap. 





FIG. 35. INTERMEDIATE AND FINISHER LAPPER—SECTIONAL VIEW 


These four-ply laps are led between the roller A and 
the points B of a series of levers C. It is the purpose of 
these levers to regulate the flow of cotton to the picker 
so that it will be always equal and uniform. ‘They are 
connected mechanically so that if a thin section passes 
through them the feeding apron D and feed rollers E 
increase their speed thereby allowing a greater quantity 


MANUFACTURE of YARN 49 


to pass through to compensate for the thin spot. If a 
heavy or thick spot passes through the reverse action 
takes place and the feed is slowed down. 


As the cotton passes through the feed rollers E it is 
struck by the rapidly revolving beater F which again 
opens the cotton into small pieces and throws it against 
grid A, where more of the sand and dirt drops out. The 
cotton passes over grid Hand on to the screen dust cages J 
where the remainder of the dirt is removed by suction. 
The cotton is condensed into a sheet and these cages are 
then removed by the stripping rollers K. It is then led 
to the calender rollers L which consolidate the sheet 
and pass it to rollers M, thus forming it into lap N. 


These laps then are taken to the finisher picker or 
scutcher where the above operation is repeated. The 
laps produced by the scutcher are no heavier or thicker 
than any of the single laps fed to the machine. Since 
there are usually four laps fed this means that the 
cotton must be drawn out four times during the process 
of picking. The lap as formed at the finishing scutcher 
is practically free of gross impurities. A card has a dirt 
box in its base with grids by means of which bushels of 
dirt are removed. As a matter of fact, the total waste 
in the picker system here outlined is about 8% of the 
raw cotton by weight. The card produces a further loss 
of 7%. The cotton is now ready for the first step 
toward the yarn formation and is next passed through 
the revolving flat card. 


CHA Pelvis 
CARDING 


The production of yarn or thread 1s the oldest manu- 
facturing process known. Long before the dawn of 
civilization the prehistoric man found use for thread 
and had mastered the problem of spinning. Wherever 
prehistoric relics are found there are generally dis- 
covered evidences of the manufacture of cloth or 
some other article made from spun yarns. While 
the present methods of manufacture and produc- 
tion are so vastly different from the original methods 
that it could almost be called a different art, still, the 
product of our modern spinning frames 1s ‘deneaaen 
construction with the first twisted yarn produced. The 
theory today of spinning is the same as it was ages ago, 
the consolidation of small fibres by twisting them around 
each other causing a clinging action and producing a 
longer thread. 


Of course, the yarns produced by our modern machines 
are of a quality that prohibits comparison with ancient 
yarns. The evenness of twist, the symmetry and the 
strength and fineness of modern yarns could only be 
produced by our modern machinery. 


As mentioned above, yarn is produced by the consoli- 
dation of various fibres caused by the twisting of the 
fibres around each other so that a clinging action is 
produced. 


In the first process of the formation of the yarn it is 
very important to place the fibres in a uniform position 
or parallelize them. 


CARDING 51 


In the preparatory process no attempt is made to 
parallelize the fibre and as the cotton laps leave the 
scutcher or picker, the fibre does not lie in a very uniform 
manner. 


The first attempt then to place the fibres in parallel 
position is in the revolving flat card. 


This is a machine that takes the lap from the picker 
and delivers a fine sheet or web of cotton that is free 





Whitin Machine Works 
FIG. 36. REVOLVING FLAT CARD 


from nearly all mechanical impurities and in which ‘the 
fibres are arranged with a good degree of parallelism. 
The sheet or web is reduced to a sliver in the last operation 
of the card. 


While there were originally numerous different styles 
of Cards, the Revolving Flat Top Card, because of its 
all-around efficiency is practically the only survivor today. 


52 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


Fig. 37 is a sectional view of a revolving flat top card. 


A represents the lap of cotton as taken from the 
finisher scutcher or picker. B is a slowly revolving roller 
which unwinds A by friction and conveys the unwound 
sheet to the feed roller C. D is a rapidly revolving 
cylinder whose surface is covered with saw teeth and 
which is known as the lickerin roller. It takes the cotton 
from C and carries it past the mote knives E which re- 
move the motes, leaf and any seed that may be left in 


the fibre. 





My 
2 
eee 















a ae 





FIG. 37. REVOLVING FLAT CARD—SECTIONAL VIEW 


The cotton is then carried around and engaged by the 
teeth covering the surface of the cylinder F. ‘This is 
traveling in the same direction as D at the point of 
contact but it is traveling at a much higher speed hence 
the stripping action takes place in which all the fibre is 
transferred to F. The cotton is then carried up and 
engaged by the revolving flats G. The latter are made 
up of a number of narrow bars known as flats, and 
formed into an endless belt or chain. The surface of 


CARDING 53 


one side of each of these flats is covered with fine teeth 
or card clothing. The flats G are moving in the same 
direction as the cylinder F but at a speed so slow as to 
be hardly discernible. Hence as the cotton is drawn 
through the clothing of these practically stationary flats 
by the clothing upon the rapidly revolving cylinder a 
combing action takes place removing the remainder of 
the seed, leaf and motes and at the same time placing 
the fibres in more nearly parallel order. H is a revolving 
brush which removes any adhering lint or dirt from the 
slowly revolving chain of flats. After leaving the flats 
the cotton is engaged by the doffer cylinder [. This is 
moving at a slower surface speed than F but its teeth 
are pointing in the opposite direction of F. Hence the 
cotton is stripped from F and condensed in the form 
of a fine sheet or web on J. The cotton is then carried 
around until it is stripped from the doffer cylinder by 
the doffer comb J. This is a very rapidly vibrating comb 
which strips the cotton off in the form of a fine sheet 
of gauze like cotton. ‘This is condensed into a rope-like 
form called a sliver and by means of rollers K and coiler 
head L it is conveyed and coiled into sliver roving can M. 

The average number of wire points per square foot 


on cylinder I equals 65,000. 


CHAP TERI 
COMBING 


In mills producing yarns that run up to about number 
seventy only one carding operation is used. Those above 
seventy are subjected to the action of another machine 
called the comber. 


In various mechanical fabrics, where strength 1s of the 
utmost importance, the process of combing is frequently 
employed to produce a strong even product, free from 
short fibres. 


Tire fabric and tire cords are made of No. 23s. Very 
generally this is combed yarn for the purpose of securing 
the maximum strength and eliminating short fibre. 
Coarse hosiery yarns are generally combed. Combed 
yarn is frequently found as coarse as 7s in shoe threads 
and other strong cords. 


As the can of sliver is produced at the revolving flat 
carding engine the fibres are in a more or less disarranged 
condition due to the natural tendency of the fibres, to 
twist around each other. The fibres also are not very 
uniform in length. 


In producing the finer yarns such as numbers 100 and 
above it is very essential to have the fibres of the sliver 
absolutely uniform in length and also to have them 
perfectly straight and parallel. 


To produce this effect a comber is used in addition to 
the revolving flat card. 


COMBING a 


The action of the comber removes all the short fibres, 
combs or straightens out each individual fibre and 
delivers a form of slivers in which the fibres are in close 
contact with each other which holds them in an absolutely 
uniform and parallel order. 


The combing process involves three sets of machines; 
first, the “Sliver Lap Machine,” which draws generally 
the eas from 20 to 40 card cans and winds them back 
into a lap of sliver; second, the “‘Ribbon Lap Machine.” 





Whitin Machine Works 
FIG. 38. RIBBON LAP MACHINE 


which doubles from 4 to 8 sliver laps and draws them 
out from 4 to 8 times, thus securing evenness, and third, 
the “Comber” proper, which eliminates fibres below a 
certain length. 


Because of the delicate construction of the comber the 
sheet of sliver from the cards must be prepared somewhat 
before being fed to the comber in order to prevent 
damage to it. 


56 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


To accomplish this the product of the cards is first 
run through a drawing frame or through machines known 
as the sliver lap machine and ribbon lap machine. These 
machines practically parallelize the fibres and form them 
into a fleecy lap of uniform thickness. 16 to 20 ends of 
card sliver used in sliver lap machine; 4 to 6 on ribbon 
lap machine. 





Whitin Machine Works 


RIG 29, COMBER 


Combers are usually built to accommodate from six 
to eight laps, that is, there are six or eight combing 
operations going on at once, and producing six or eight 
strands of combed sliver. 


As was stated before the comber takes a lap of cotton 
the fibres of which may vary considerably in length and 
produce a sliver in which all the fibres are of uniform 
length. 


The machine is adjusted to deliver fibre of a certain 
staple and during the operation all fibres that are below 
that standard are removed or combed out. 


COMBING ci 


SZ 





FIG. 40. COMBER—SECTIONAL VIEW 


Fig. 40 shows the detail of the comber. 


The lap is shown resting on wooden feed rollers A. 
Lap B is shown being fed to rollers C and D. When the 
proper length of sliver is fed bevond the nippers E and F. 
E clamps down on the sliver and the rollers C reverse 
and break the sheet of sliver as shown. ‘The comb 
cylinder G revolves and the needles H pass through the 
projecting end of the lap which is held by nippers E and F. 
This action combs out all the short fibres. The comb 
cylinder continues to revolve and the fluted segment I 
engages the tuft of cotton still held by the nippers E and F, 
at this instant E and F release the tuft of cotton and roll 


58 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


J descends and bears on the fluted segment which action 
causes the released tuft of cotton to be conveyed to 
rolls K where it ts laid on and consolidated with the 
preceding sheets. Nippers L and M then descend and 
hold the tuft of cotton with the back or uncombed end 
projecting. he needles H revolving then pass through 
it and comb out the short fibres. Rolls N convey the 
sheet to a doubler where it is doubled into a rope and 
coiled into a sliver can. ‘The brush O removes the 
short fibres from the needles of the comb which is in 
turn cleaned by doffer cylinder P. The vibrating doffer 
comb O then separates the lint from the doffer cylinder. 


CEP PER VEL 
DRAWING 


As the doffer roll takes the sheet of cotton from the 
cylinder in the card, it has a tendency to cause a dis- 
arrangement of the fibres because the doffer is running 
at a much less surface speed than the cylinder and has 
to take much more of cotton on its unit surface area. 
This condensing action causes some of the fibres to be- 
come crossed. 


As was pointed out above, it is important to have the 
fibres parallel before spinning, so this sliver as delivered 
from the cards is subjected to the action of a drawing 
machine. 


The operation of the drawing frame consists of passing 
the strands of sliver through a series of four pairs of 
rollers. ‘The lower roller of each pair of which is fluted. 
A more even and uniform sliver is produced by the 
system of doubling the sliver at the back of the drawing 
frame. Usually from four to eight strands of sliver are 
fed into the same set of rollers which draws and condenses 
them into the size and weight of one sliver and delivers 
it to the sliver can. ‘This action is known as a delivery 
and a drawing frame may have eight deliveries. ‘This 
means that if eight ends of sliver are being drawn and 
condensed by each set of draw rollers, there are sixty-four 
strands of sliver being fed to that machine which pro- 
duces eight strands of drawn sliver. 


As the sliver is fed into the machine, it is engaged by 
a pair of rollers running at a certain speed. It passes 
thence to a second set running at a slightly higher speed 


60 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


and which produces a slight draw or draft in the sliver. 
It is then engaged by the third set that is running still 
faster and which puts more draft in the sliver until 
finally the fourth set which is running faster than the 
third produces the final draft. 





H. &3 B. American Machine Co. 
FIG. 41. DRAWING FRAME 


The sliver produced at the front of the draw frame is 
about the same weight and size as a single strand that 
is fed at the back end. This means that if eight strands 
are fed to the draw frame there is a draft of eight, or, the 
consolidated eight strands are drawn out to eight times 
their length. Where four strands of sliver are used the 
draft is four, etc. 


On emerging from the last set of draw rollers the sliver 
is coiled into the sliver or roving can. 


DRAWING 61 


It can be readily seen that by this action of drawing 
or pulling the sliver lengthwise any crossed or tangled 
fibres will be laid uniform and parallel. 


It is common practice to take the sliver from the first 
draw frame and runit through a second drawing operation. 


Card sliver has three processes of drawing carded yarn. 


Comber sliver has two processes for combed yarn. 


If too many processes of drawing are used, the fibres 
are too parallel and will not hold together; or will break 
when being drawn out of the can at the next process, 


Slubbing. 





FIG, 42. DRAWING FRAME—SECTIONAL VIEW 


Fig. 42, is a general view of the drawing operation. A 
denotes the strands of sliver which in this case are six 
being drawn through the comb at B, and the sliver 
spoons C. They pass through the series of draw rollers D, 
where they are consolidated and given a draft of six. 
The calender rolls F draw the sliver through the trumpet EF, 
and deposit it in coiler F, which revolving coils the sliver 
in the can G. Mechanical stop motion is shown, but 
electrical stop motion is very popular. 


62 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


Fig. 43, represents the action of drawing the card 
sliver. A is the sliver as received from the cards. It 
shows a marked derangement of the fibres. As it pro- 
gresses through the draw rollers these fibres are pulled 
or drawn to a more uniform position until they are all 
in an even and parallel order as shown at B. This also 
evens the weight. 





FIG. 43. DRAWING ROLLERS—SECTIONAL VIEW 


CHAPEER VIII 
SLUBBING and ROVING 


As the cotton leaves the drawing frames it is in the form 
of a fluffy rope known as sliver. The fibres have been 
cleaned of all mechanical impurities, also straightened 
out and laid in parallel order. 


This sliver is too bulky for spinning and must be further 
drawn out. 


The next three stages of the process have for their 
object the drawing and reduction of this sliver. 


These operations all employ the same type and design 
of machine which 1s known as a fly frame. The machines 
are so named because the principal part revolves at a 
high rate of speed and is known as a flyer. 


The first of these operations is known as slubbing. 


The machine used in this operation is practically the 
same as the other fly frames. The only difference being 
in the method of feeding. The slubber taking the sliver 
out of cans as delivered from the drawing frames while 
the other fly frames take the sliver or roving as it is 
then called from bobbins. 


The sliver is fed into the slubber from the rear and 
passes through three pairs of drawing rollers. It then 
passes to a revolving flyer operating on a vertical spindle 
which produces some twist and it is then wound upon a 
bobbin revolving upon a bolster, as the bobbin must 
decrease in speed, as it grows in diameter. 


i. 


64 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


These full bobbins as produced at the slubber are 
then placed in the second slubber known as an inter- 
mediate fly frame. The roving is doubled and fed to 
the machine in which it passes through a series of draw 
rollers where the two strands are consolidated and drawn 
to a finer strand. It then passes through a flyer where 
it is twisted and wound on to bobbins for the next 
machine called the roving frame. 





tf B. American Machine Co. 


FIG. 44. SLUBBER MACHINE 


The roving frame is sometimes referred to as the 
speeder because it operates at a much higher speed than 
the other fly frames. It is practically a repetition of the 
first slubber except that the machine is of finer con- 
struction and the roving produced is much finer. The 
roving frame is operated in the same manner as the 
preceding frames, the roving produced, of course, being 
finer. 


SLUBBING and ROVING 


Fig. 45, is a sectional view 


fl of a roving frame. 
LEN ‘ 
A represents the bobbins 
be of roving, B shows the 
HY i strands of roving being doub- 
} led at guiding eye C. Dis 


Sv = the series of draw rollers 
XZ WZ which draw out the doubled 
Econ penne strand of roving, E is the 
a on hich prod th 
Wags yer which produces the 

twist in the roving and G is 
the bobbin of roving. 


pi: 


Se 


oC \ 






FIG. 45, ROVING{|MACHINE—SECTIONAL VIEW 


65 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


66 


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CHAPTER IX 
SPINNING 
Yarn is identified by its “count” or number. 


The count or number of the yarn represents the 
number of hanks of 840 yds. each necessary to make 
one pound. 


While the final count is produced at the spinning frame 
all the machines, from the card to the spinning frame, play 
an important part in the production of the proper 
weight of the finished yarn. 


All these machines make use of the drawing or ‘‘draft”’ 
principle to reduce the lap of cotton, as produced at the 
finishing lapper, to a yarn of definite weight. 


As an example, the lap of cotton as produced in the 
picker room may weigh 5000 grains per yard. The card 
takes this lap and draws it out into a sheet weighing 
about 60 grains per yard, producing a draft of about 85. 
The drawing frames double these strands of sliver and 
produce a draft equal to the number of strands fed, in 
the case of six doublings the draft would be six. This 
drawing process is continued through the various ma- 
chines, the draft produced by each machine directly 
affecting the weight of the finished yarn. The spinning 
frame takes the roving and produces the final draw, 
delivering the thread of yarn of required number. 


Up to this point in the manufacture of cotton yarn 
the processes have for their objects the cleaning, parallel- 
ism and uniformity of the product. 


XTILE HAND-BOOK 


x 
4 


Tk 


68 


ANVAL ONINNIdS 


Zy¥ Ola 


SYLO Mf AULYIDPY UlILY YY 




















SPINNING 69 


The process of spinning still further draws out the 
yarn, and produces the final twist. 


There are two methods employed known as ring spin- 
ning and mule spinning. 


RING SPINNING 


The operation of ring spinning may be compared with 
that of the roving frame. In this machine the combi- 
nation of the revolving flyer and the winding of the 
roving on the bobbin, produces a twist in the roving, 
which consolidates the fibres. 


In the production of ‘the yarn by the ring spinning 
frame the same general process takes place. In the 
spinning frame the bobbins are revolving at a much 
higher rate of speed and instead of the flyer we have 
what is called a ring traveler. ‘This is a small ring 
through which the yarn passes 
while being wound on to the 
bobbin. It is dragged around 
the bobbin by the pull on the yarn, 
being guided by flanged rings called 
traveler rings. This revolution 
of the bobbin and traveler pro- 
duces the twist in the yarn. 









Traveler 








‘| ——. 


“ 
nat —_ + gs 





Fig. 48, shows a section of a spin- 
ning frame. A 1s the bobbins of 
roving in the creel. B ts the series 
of draw rollers that produces the 
final draw in the roving. C is the 
revolving bobbin, the pull of which 
causes the traveler D to travel in 
the same direction, guided by the 


FIG. 49 ring E. 


Ring 


70 


FIG. 48. 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 





SPINNING FRAME—SECTIONAL VIEW 


SPINNING 71 


Fig. 49, gives a close view of the traveler and its guide. 


Yarn that is to be used as filling in the weave room is 
wound directly on the bobbins or quills, which are in- 
serted into the shuttle. 


The warp yarns after being wound on bobbins in the 
spinning frame are re-wound from these bobbins, to 
spools, which are of sufficient size to 
hold the yarn from a number of bob- 
bins. ‘The yarn from these spools is 
in turn wound carefully and evenly on 
to what is known as a Warper Beam. 







2527" 
ss 






\ if 
thecn: BSS OF TSU 
; 


FIG. 50. MULE SPINNER 


MULE SPINNING 


Where very fine and high count numbers of yarn are 
spun the mule is used quite extensively. 


As shown in Fig. 50, it consists of a frame equipped 
with a creel for holding the bobbins of roving, and 
which also contains a set of draw rollers. 


The spindles, however, are not fixed in a stationary rail 
as in the ring frame, but are mounted on a carriage which 
moves back and forth for a distance of about five feet. 


ee TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


A shows the position of the carriage as the operation 
starts. As the yarn is delivered from the draw rollers 
the carriage moves out and the spindle C revolves. The 
spindle C is at an angle so that as it revolves the yarn 
slips off the top, and instead of winding it, produces a 
twisting effect. Just before the carriage reaches the end 
of its outward movement the roving bobbins and draw 
rollers stop, causing the delivery of the yarn to stop. The 
Carriage continues on its way which action puts more 
draw and twist into the yarn. When the carriage reaches 
the end of its outward movement it stops, and the spindle 
reverses its motion fora moment. The rods D then drop, 
and carry the yarn from the point of the spindle down 
to the point at which it is to be wound. 


The carriage then begins its return movement, and at 
the same time the spindle starts revolving in its original 
direction. This causes the thread of spun yarn to be 
taken up and wound on the spindle. 


When the carriage returns to the position A the rollers 
again start delivery of the roving, and the operation 
repeats itself. 


Mule spinning is the oldest mechanical method of 
spinning cotton. ‘The advantages of mule spinning over 
ring spinning is that it produces a more even thread, 
and a much finer yarn can be produced than by the ring 
method. It is generally employed where very fine grades 
of yarn are spun, and has been known to spin yarns 
numbering as high as 21,500, which was spun in England 
for exhibition purposes. 400’s are regularly spun for 
lace making. 


Fig. 52, shows a spooler in which the yarn from bobbin 
Ais being wound on to the spool B. Cis the rack in which 
the full spools are placed, and D is the bobbin box. The 
traverse rod E moves up and down, as the spool is 
wound, and guides the yarn so that it is evenly wound. 


SPINNING 





(te: 


SPOOLER 


FIG. S51. 


Whitin Machine Works 


74 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 





FIGs. SPOOLER—SECTIONAL VIEW 


SPINDLES 


The size of a cotton mill is determined by the number 
of spindles it contains, as the output is dependent upon 
the spindle capacity. 


While the U. S. leads the world in cotton production, 


Great Britain leads the world in cotton manufacture. 
The following statistics will prove interesting. 


ACTIVE SPINDLES=1928 


Mule Ring Total 
World 56,000,000 74,000,000 130,000,000 
Great Britain 39,000,000 10,500,000 49,500,000 
United States 3,000,000 33,000,000 36,000,000 


All other Countries | 44,500,000 


SPINNING 


75 


Alay eeCOLlON SPINDLES IN THE UNITED STATES 


Cotton States 


Virginia 585,650 
Ne Carolina 551252121 


S. Carolina 5,006,258 
Georgia 2,640,800 
Alabama 1,281,444 
Mississippi SRS 
Tennessee 413,589 
Kentucky 95,288 
Missouri 31,648 
Louisiana 103,128 
Texas 166,468 
Others (32222 

15,708,988 


INeI921 
New England 

Maine 1,114,020 
New Hampshire 1,428,415 
Vermont 144,808 
Massachusetts 11,582,691 
Rhode Jsland 2,766,426 
Connecticut 1,351,429 

18,387,789 


Other States 


New York 990, 252 
New Jersey 421,699 
Pennsylvania 221,311 
Maryland 142,792 
Indiana 80,256 
Illinois 51,640 
All others 42,640 

1,950,590 


CHAP TERGX 
WEAVING 
PREPARATION FOR WEAVING 


Weaving is the process of interlacing threads of warp 
and filling to produce cloth of various designs. In a 
piece of cloth the warp threads are those running length- 
wise, while the filling threads run crosswise. 


As the yarn that is to be used for the filling thread is 
taken from the spinning frame it 1s ready for the loom, 
but before the warp threads can go to the loom they 
must be subjected to preparatory processes, the first of 
which is spooling. ‘This is necessary because the length of 
yarn on the spinning frame bobbin is too short, so seven or 
eight of these bobbins are wound upon the one spool, 
making a length of 21,000 to 30,000 yards (seven to ten 
wraps—a wrap is 3000 yards). When filled, the spools 
are placed in the creel of the warper, as described in 
another chapter. 


The warp threads are placed in the loom very evenly 
spaced, and uniformly wound on a large spool called a 
loom beam. 


The number of ends or threads wound on the beam 
depends upon the construction of the cloth. 


Assume cloth of 48x48 construction, which means 
48 ends or threads of warp per inch and 48 ends of filling 
per inch. The cloth is to be 39” wide. If there are 48 
ends of warp to the inch, the number of warp yarns in the 
width of the cloth are 1872 ends. In addition there are 
used from 9 to 32 threads on each edge for the selvage, 
or a total of about 1900 ends of warp yarn per beam. 


WEAVING 77 


During the process of weaving these warp yarns are 
subjected to heavy frictional and tensile strains, and in 
order to strengthen them, and enable them to resist these 
strains they are subjected to a sizing or slashing operation 
which is explained in detail under “‘Slashing.” 


The prepared or sized yarn is taken off the front of 
this slasher and wound on the loom beam. It is fed to 
the slasher, however, from a series of of large beams 
called section or warper beams. The number of section 
beams is dependent upon the number of ends on the 
loom beam. Usually four or more section beams are 
used, containing an equal number of threads, the total 
of all the section beam ends equalling the number of 
ends on the loom beam. 


The operation of winding the yarn to the section or 
warper beam is accomplished in a machine called 
a warper. 


GHA PE | I Raexek 
WARPING 


The operation of warping consists of unwinding the 
yarn, that is to be used for the warp thread, from a 
number of spools and re-winding them on a large spool 
called a warper beam. 





Fales & Jenks Machine Co. 
FIG, 53. SLASHER WARPER 


The spools are arranged on skewers in a creel so they 
may revolve freely. 


The creel is made of two upright frames which are 
joined at one end and open on the other, presenting a 
ground plan like the letter V, as shown in Fig. 54. 


WARPING ee 


The number of spools in the creel is the same as the 
number of ends of yarn to be wound on the beam. This 
number is dependent upon the number of ends of yarn 
that are to be finally wound on to the loom beams from 
the slasher. 


As an example, we will take a style of cloth requiring 
2,826 ends of number 30s yarn for the warp, or 2,826 
per loom beam. 


If it is decided to take this yarn in the slasher from 6 
warp beams, each beam would require 471 ends of yarn. 


| 


The yarn is taken from each of these spools as shown 
in Fig. 54, under the guide A, through.the comb B, and 
the various rollers shown, and is finally placed very 
evenly in the barrel of the beam G. 


The creel then would have 471 spools. 


















FIG. 54. BEAM WARPER 


80 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


This rests on the driving cylinder H, which revolves 
the beam by friction. F is an arrangement which auto- 
matically stops the cylinder H, if the thread breaks, and 
C is a take-up roller which rises when G 1s stopped and 
thus takes up the slack yarn caused by the spool un- 
winding due to momentum. D is a measuring roller, 
and F is a comb which holds the yarn to even spacing on 
the beam. 


GHAPTER: XII 
SLASHING of WARP YARNS 


The slashing or sizing of warp yarns 1s one of the most 
important operations in a cotton mill. 


The results produced by the slasher room seriously 
affect the product and output of the mill. 


The feel, weight, general appearance and performance 
of the cloth during the processes of bleaching and finish- 
ing, are dependent upon the methods and materials used 
in the slasher room. The most important feature in the 
preparation of the yarn however, 1s the conditioning of 
the yarn for the looms. 


It has been mentioned that warp yarns are subjected 
to heavy tensile and frictional strains during the process 
of weaving. 


These operations subject the warp threads to quite a 
frictional strain, due to the rubbing of the threads to- 
gether during the shedding process, and also the rubbing 
of the heddles and reed against the thread. The pull 
exerted on the threads by the action of the heddles 
reversing, and also by the take-up arrangement, produces 
a heavy tensile strain on the yarn, and these strains are 
too great for the yarn as produced at the spinning frame 
to resist. 


If yarn as it comes from the spinning frame were to 
be woven on the modern loom it would soon chafe and 
pull apart, due to the lack of proper body and strength 
to resist these strains. 


It is necessary then to improve the weaving quality of 
the raw yarn by subjecting it to an operation called 


6 


82 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


slashing or sizing. This impregnates the yarn with an 
adhesive mixture, which is usually a starch size. The 
adhesive nature of the size consolidates the fibres that 
make the thread, causing them to adhere and thereby 
strengthen the yarn proper to a considerable degree, and 
producing the necessary firmness and body in the yarn, 
to enable it to withstand the friction caused by the 
harness and reed. 


The various steps of the slashing operation are:— 
Feeding the yarn from a number of section beams. 
Impregnating the yarn with the size. 

Drying the yarn. 


Leasing or separating the yarn. 


Me WN eS 


Winding the consolidated sheet of yarn on a loom 
beam. 


Having determined the number of warper beams 
necessary they are weighed and placed in the frame as 
shown in the Fig. 55, and by means of a hand adjustment 
are placed with the heads all in line. 


The sheet of warp from the first beam is unwound by 
hand from the rear beam and carried over, where it is 
united with the sheet of warp from the next beam, and 
so on with the other beams. 


The whole sheet is then drawn through the starch 
box A.  B, is the immersion roller that carries the yarn 
through the size mixture and C and D are squeeze rolls. 
The yarn is then carried around the steam heated drying 
cylinders, E ‘and F as shown and finally wound on loom 
beam H. Under the letter G, is a series of lease rods 
that divide the sheet of yarn up into as many parts as 
there are beams in the front. G, is a comb through 
which the yarn passes, and which further separates the 
ends. 


83 


SLASHING of WARP YARNS 


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CHAPTER XIII 
COMPOSITION of SIZE 


The composition of size may be divided into three 
elements, 1.e.: 


1. The adhesive (starch) 


2. The softener or emollient (commonly called sizing 
compound, sizing assistant, etc.) 


3. The vehicle or solvent (water) 


The sizing operation has been used for more experi- 
ments, hocus-pocus, and as an outlet for more mysterious 
concoctions than any other operation in a cotton mill. 


There have been many so-called sizing compounds 
introduced composed of cheap substances, which could 
not possibly produce any valuable results in the size. 
The composition of these sizing compounds are as a rule 
not based upon any knowledge of the materials neces- 
sary for a good size, and the production of a perfect cloth. 


The most effective substance with which to treat the 
soft yarn in order to enable it to pass through the loom 
without breaking is a size mixture made up of starch. 


The properly prepared size penetrates the individual 
fibres and on drying produces a cement that holds the 
fibres together. This makes the yarn stronger, inasmuch 
as in the soft yarn the fibres are held together by their 
clinging action around each other or their twist, while 
the dry size of the sized yarn actually consolidates the 
individual fibres into one mass, so that in addition to the 
strength produced by the twist of the fibres there is 
additional strength from the dried starch. 


COMPOSITION of SIZE 85 


However, it is necessary to temper or soften this starch 
with an agent that prevents it from drying to a hard, stiff 
and brittle mass, and to produce instead a pliable and 
flexible substance. The purpose also of this material is 
to impart a smoothness to the surface of this sized thread 
so that the friction caused by the thread movement is 
reduced to a minimum. 


The softener or sizing assistant is a very important 
element of the size and should be selected with extreme 
care, 


It should have perfect penetrating properties, and 
should blend with the starch, and produce the necessary 
softening, without in any way affecting the body or 
strength producing property of the starch. 


The only essential ingredients necessary in a sizing 
mixture are the adhesive elements, which include the 
starches or starch combinations, and a softening agent 
to keep the starch in proper condition. 


Tallow, fats and oils have very valuable softening 
properties. Research has revealed, however, that certain 
combinations of fats and oils produce a better quality of 
work than those selected at random, and that by subject- 
ing these combinations to certain preparatory or chemical 
action considerable improvement in results is obtained. 
This latter product in fact borders on the ideal as a 
softening agent for warp yarns. 


Commercial Sizing Assistants are composed of various 
ingredients. We give below an analysis of several types: 

















A B c D E F G 
Water DMG | IRS GA. MOOI RYN OSU SSMU AL QUA 
Starch and Dextrine 20 50 14 10 ii Call oh 
Zinc Chlorides i 2 2 1 af Pia 
Magnesium Chlorides 10 tee A uf 
Calcium Chlorides 2 oy, 4 3 ft $4 3 
Fatty matter 44 22 4 9 13 PAP o2 
Mineral Oil de “ne 10 5 ae £4 33 
Carbolic Acid Je <a, ie Ae fen. 3 We, 
Soap a ae +. te oer an 9 











86 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


We have previously stated that the essential ingredi- 
ents in a starch size are merely starch, water and emollient 
or softener. 


The table of analyses given onthe preceding page, shows 
that many of the so-called size softeners contain mineral 
oil, mineral wax, chlorides of calcium, magnesium and 
zinc, and also soap. They also contain percentages of 
starch and dextrine. . 


Starch and dextrine are, of course, essential ingredients 
when used for sizing, but when used in products which 
are intended for softening purposes, or as emollients, 
they must be considered as loading agents. 


Inasmuch as it is necessary to use percentages of starch, 
or dextrine, with such mixtures, it is more economical for 
the consumer to purchase and select pure pearl starch, or 
whatever is best suited for his particular requirements, 
at a price averaging from two to four cents per pound, 
and then use the quantity necessary to obtain the results. 


All that is necessary for the consumer to consider is a 
softener, possessing the highest emollient and softening 
properties; in fact, a product that will furnish the neces- 
sary softening effects. 


The quality and adaptability of a softener for this 
purpose is not indicated or in direct proportion to its 
saponifiable content. 


The quality of a softening agent depends entirely upon 
the kind of fatty matter that will enable it to blend 
perfectly with the starch; for instance, many of the seed 
oils, are 100% saponifiable matter, yet they are not 
adapted as softening agents in a size mixture. 


Softener for size usually sells from 8 to 15 cents per 
pound, and it does not take a mathematician to realize 
that the consumer is paying this price for every pound 
of starch that a softener contains. All that is wanted is 
the softening or emollient properties of such mixtures, 
and the guarantee that it will produce the results desired 
in the starch mixture. 


COMPOSITION of SIZE 87 


Any percentage of starch or dextrine, therefore, in a 
softener, or a sizing process, while they could not be 
considered inert, are merely used to load, and@are ex- 
tremely expensive when charged for at the price of the 
softener. 


Chlorides of magnesium, zinc and calcium are used 
rather extensively in sizing compounds. 


These chemicals are deliquescent, that 1s, they absorb 
moisture from the air. 


This property is claimed to be an advantage when 
these chemicals are used in size, inasmuch as they attract 
a certain amount of moisture to the yarn. 


A regain in weight is also claimed. ‘These claims in 
connection with sizing yarns are exaggerated when the 
following is considered. 


These chlorides have the power to absorb their own 
weight of water, 1.e., one pound of the dry substance can 
attract one pound of water. An examination of the 
preceding list shows Sizing Compound “A” containing a 


total of 12% of these chlorides. 


We will take Sizing Compound ‘‘A”’ and assume a size 
mixture made up with it contains 200 pounds of starch, 
25 pounds of the Sizing Compound made up to 200 gallons. 


On the basis of 12% there would actually be put into 
the size 12% of 25 pounds or 3 pounds of the chlorides. 
This size mixture is sufficient to size 2000 pounds of soft 
yarn. 

Admitting that the 3 pound of clorides taken up by 
the yarn would absorb 3 pounds of water, in terms of 
per cent., there would be an increase of .0015%. 


Sized yarn normally absorbs up to 10% moisture from 
the air. Where the atmosphere is highly saturated with 
water it will run high. It is obvious that an increase in 
weight of such a low percentage as .0015% is hardly 
worth serious consideration, inasmuch as a slight change 
in the humidity of the atmosphere will ofttimes effect the 
yarn to a greater percentage. 


88 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


There is no basis whatever for claims that the chlorides 
in the percentages used add any virtues to the product, 
and they can be considered inert when used in a sizing 
mixture. 


It will be interesting however, to trace the disad- 
vantages of using these chlorides in warp yarns, especially 
where the cloth is to pass through a bleaching and 
finishing operation. 


The chlorides of zinc, calcium and magnesium have 
the property of decomposing at high temperatures into 
their respective oxides and hydrochloric acid. 


The first operation that cloth is subjected to in the 
process of bleaching and finishing is that of singeing, in 
which the cloth is passed at a high rate of speed, through 
a series of gas flames. The purpose of this is to burn or 
singe off the hairy fibres so they will not interfere with 
the ultimate finish. The heat of the singer decomposes 
these chlorides, and the action of the free acid at this 
high heat is practically instantaneous on the yarns, 
causing tendering and ruining the cloth for further use. 


It is obvious then that the addition of the chlorides 
of calcium and magnesium does not produce any valuable 
results, but on the contrary they are liable to absolutely 
ruin the cloth of which they are a part, unless the cloth 
is first freed from the objectionable chloride by treat- 
ment previous to singeing, which naturally entails an 
additional operation in the finishing mill. 


Glycerine is sometimes used as a softener owing to its 
deliquescent properties. Large quantities are necessary 
to produce a genuine result as it can only absorb about 
half its weight of water. Glycerine is highly hygroscopic, 
1.e., it has the power to attract and hold moisture which, 
with heat and infection, would foster the growth of mil- 
dew or mold on cloth. Great care should be exercised 
to use the correct quality and quantity of preserva- 
tives or mildew preventives when it is present. 


Glycerine, however, has certain merits as a softener, 


COMPOSITION of SIZE 89 


but it is expensive, and the results obtained by its use, 
do not justify the expense. 


The analyses of Softeners “C,” “D’” and “G,” show 
varying percentages of parafine wax. The mineral waxes 
such as parafline possess the same softening properties, 
but their use should be confined to low grade work. 


It should never be used where the cloth is to be bleached, 
finished or dyed. 


The second operation in a bleachery is that of kier- 
boiling the cloth in order to remove the size, natural 
cotton oils and waxes and other materials which would 
interfere with the finish and dyeing of the cloth. It 
consists of boiling the cloth under low pressure in a 
solution of caustic soda, soda ash and an emulsifier such 
as soap, kier assistants, etc. 


If parafine wax has been used in the sizing it is im- 
possible to remove it except by prolonged boiling and 
with the use of enormous quantities of an emulsifying 
agent. [his increases the cost and does not entirely 
remove the wax. 


Parafiine wax does not appear on the cloth until it has 
been bleached, mercerized and dyed, when it becomes 
noticeable in the form of yellow patches in the mercer- 
ized stock and dark stains in the dyed material. Such 
cloth must then be used as seconds, or is absolutely use- 
less, depending upon the extent and nature of the damage. 


The ideal softener therefore, for a size mixture consists 
of saponifiable fatty matter selected and _ prepared 
specially for the purpose intended. 


There are numerous fatty materials that can be used 
as softening agents. Prime tallow posesses merits as a 
softener; some of the soft greases are equally useful, and 
cocoanut, and castor oils are all well known for their 
softening properties. 


It has been ascertained that when certain combinations 


of these fats are processed and chemically treated, and 
incorporated with them, products which will enable them 


90 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


to blend with the starch, and in addition penetrate the 
fibre, they give better results than where the fats, tallow, 
etc., are used alone. 


In the selection of a sizing softener it must not be over- 
looked that the quantity of fatty matter it possesses 
does not indicate its value or adaptability as a sizing 
softener. 


The results produced at the slasher and loom is the 
real test. 


It has been found that pure beef tallow, which is 
practically 100% fatty matter, does not give as good 
results as three-quarters the amount of a softener con- 
taining a small percentage of fatty matter. 


Numerous laboratory and actual mill tests were made 
of sizing softeners. ‘These tests were not confined to 
slashing, but were carried through to the shed rooms; 
were observed closely and an investigation made in the 
cloth room. The cloth upon which the different com- 
pounds were used were followed to the finishing mill, the 
finishing was examined closely, and micro- -photographs 
were taken of the yarn upon which the various sizing 
compounds were used. ‘These micro-photographs were 
taken to determine, if possible, the penetration obtained 
from each product, and to ascertain the difference in the 
laying of the fuzz, or hairy portion of the yarn. (See 
Fig. 56.) 


As a general rule sizing compounds or assistants are 
composed of fatty matter, partially saponified with alkali 
in order to produce an emulsion. Very often the fatty 
matter is emulsified by boiling up with dextrins or gums 
in order to hold it in suspension. 


These emulsions are difficult to hold in suspension and 
very often the fatty matter settles out, making uni- 
formity of product and results impossible. 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK ANALYSES of SIZED and UNSIZED YARNS PLATE II. CHAPTER XIV 


i i y : ‘ 
tte fil rg : 


ZED WITH “I” COMPOUND SAMPLE No.4. 23s YARN SIZED WITH “J” COMPOUND SAMPLE No. 5. 23s YARN SIZED WITH PRIME BEEF TALLOW SAMPLE No.6. 23s YARN SIZED WITH “K” COMPOUND 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK ANALYSES of SIZED and UNSIZED YARNS PLATE II. CHAPTER XIV 




























































































AMPLE No. 1. UNSIZED 23s YARN SAMPLE No, 2, 23s YARN SIZED WITH “H” COMPOUND SAMPLE No. 3. 23s YARN 





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91 


of SIZE 


COMPOSITION 


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FON Oy jenba node ST SIy T “MOT[EI autiid SUIUIE}UOD uorjynyjos aZIS & YyiM peonpoid ule XxX “9 “ON 

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¢ “ON pue ~ ON I39AO quowaAOoId WIT ue SMOYS Sty T “19UIIFOS 9ZIs [elo19ur Woo eB Wolf ape ‘Fb ON 


TZ ‘ON pure sity} UsaMjaq sDUZTOPIP 9431] AIIA IN ‘19aUazJOS 9ZIS [RIOIJWUIWIOD B WOT} a9peUl OSTY “¢ “ON 

TON pun sry, uaamjaq zunf fo aipjuarda€ JY] Ut aIuUasaffip aqjt] K4aa ng St adayt 210 ? 
"19U9IJOS 9ZIS [BIIIZW WOD UMOUY [[9M & YIM dn apeul UONNIOS 9ZIs & YITAA paonpoid used Y “Z ‘ON 
‘aumeiy Suruurds ayi 3e paonpoid se ulvA pazisus) “[ “ON 


SUANALAOS SNOIMVA HLIM GALVAUL SNAVA 9S ‘Old 
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ayy Sulsq IUIIAYIp AJUO dy} ‘e[NUIIOJ aZIs aUIYS ay} JO 9SN ay Apoquia pur ule 
JUIVS 34} UO [[v av SJsa} VsaYUT “9S ‘31 ul poonpoidal sydvisor1o1ut-oj0yd oy} UI UMOYS 
SI SIQUdIJOS SNOLIVA YAM poieI1} uivA oy} Jo [aaj pur souvivedde ay} jo Apnis V7 


CHAPTER. 2ahy 
ANALYSES of SIZED and UNSIZED YARNS 


PURPOSE OF ANALYSES 


The purpose of the series of analyses described in this 
report was to provide a comparison of the several yarns, 
tested in such a way that the distinguishing features 
might be brought out in definite measurable quantities, 
as well as by visual examination. ‘The principal factors 
under investigation were: 


1. The depth of penetration of starch or sizing 
materials. 


2. Softness of the yarn. 
3. Tensile strength and elasticity of yarn. 


IDENTIFICATION OF SPECIMENS 


The specimens studied were samples of yarn which 
were representative of several distinct methods of warp 
conditioning. ‘These were as follows: 


I. Samples 1 to 6 inclusive are six samples of 23s warp, 
each of which was treated with a different compound, 
though under the same conditions, in the same manner, 
and on the same grade of stock. Their comparison there- 
fore, should afford definite knowledge of the performance 
to be expected from each of the several compounds. 


The samples were: 
No. 1. Soft yarn before sizing. 


No. 2. Yarn sized with a compound which we will 
designate as “H.7 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK ANALYSES of SIZED and UNSIZED YARNS PLATE lS CHAP Fi kay 


























SAMPLE No.7. 19s YARN UNSIZE 
oO s RN UNSIZED SAMPLE No. 8. 19s YARN SIZED WITH “J’ COMPOUND SAMPLE No.9. 19s YARN SIZED WITH “H” COMPOUND 


em 





ANALYSES of SIZED and UNSIZED YARNS 33 


No. 3. Yarn sized with a compound which we will 
designate as “I.” 


No. 4. Yarn sized with a compound which we will 
designate as “J.”’ 


No. 5. Yarn sized with prime beef tallow. 


No. 6. Yarn sized with a compound which we will 
designate as “K.” 


The methods of treatment are understood to have 
been as follows: 

Sample No. 2: Sizing bath was made from 80 pounds, 
40 degrees, modified corn starch, 6 pounds of “H,”’ and 
120 gallons of water. The starch, “H’ compound, and 
water were mixed together cold for 15 minutes and then 
brought to a boil and boiled for 45 minutes. This 
material was used at a temperature of 200 degrees in 
the slashing. 

Samples Nos. 3, 4,5 and 6: Were all sized in the same 
manner and under identical conditions. 

No. 3 yarn was sized with 80 lbs. starch, 13 Ibs. “TI,” 
and 120 gals. of water. 

No. 4 yarn was sized with 80 lnsostarcny LO-lbs.a |) 
and 120 gals. of water. 

No. 5 yarn was sized with 80 lbs. starch, 8 lbs. prime 
beef tallow, and 120 gals. of water. 

No. 6 yarn was sized with 80 lbs. starch, 13 Ibs. KK, 3 
and 120 gals. of water. 

II. Samples Nos. 7 to 9 inclusive are three samples 
of 19s warp yarn. 


Sample No. 7 represents the soft yarn before sizing. 


Sample No. 8 represents yarn sized with “J”? compound 
as follows: : 


Size mixing was 100 lbs., 40 degrees corn starch, 18 lbs. 
mie vand: 106 pallons of water. Ther starch, “"J,* and 


94 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


water were mixed cold for 15 minutes, boiled for 45 
minutes and used in the sizing bath at 200° Fahr. 


Sample No. 9 represents yarn sized with ““H” compound 
as follows: 


Size mixing was 100 lbs., 40 degrees corn starch, 18 lbs. 
““H’’ compound, and 106 gals. of water. This mixing 
was used at the same temperature and in the same 
manner as in the case of Sample No. 8. 


III. Samples Nos. 10 to 12 inclusive are three samples 
of 30s soft yarn. 


Sample No. 10 represents the soft yarn before sizing. 


Sample No. 11 represents yarn sized with “J”? compound 
as follows: 


Size mixing was 125 lbs., 40 degrees corn starch, 25 lbs. 
“J” compound, and 170 gals. of water. The corn starch, 
“J” compound and water were mixed cold for 15 minutes, 


boiled for one hour and used at 200° Fahr. 


Sample No. 12.represents yarn sized with “‘H” com- 
pound as follows: 


Size mixing was 125 lbs., 40 degrees corn starch, 25 lbs. 
““H”’ compound, and 170 gals. of water. ‘The ingredients 
were mixed cold, agitated for 15 minutes, boiled for one 


hour and used at 200° Fahr. 


DESCRIPTION OF ANALYSES 
The various analyses were as follows: 


Section I. 
Physical tests— 


(a) Yarn single end strength. 

(b) Per cent. variation from average strength. 

(c) Per cent. elasticity. 

(d) Hygroscopic test after over-night exposure at 72% 
relative humidity—per cent. regain. 

(e) Per cent. sizing on sized yarn weight. 


PLATE LV¥e 3GHA CL key 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK ANALYSES of SIZED and UNSIZED YARNS 











} 


e 
ri 
L 


ew 


-\Y 




















SAMPLE No. 10. 30s YARN UNSIZED SAMPLE No. 11. 


30s YARN SIZED WITH “J” COMPOUND 


SAMPLE No. 12. 30s YARN SIZED WITH “H” COMPOUND 


1A 
> 


“4 


Wn 


baie 


a 
ag * 
re 


ood 








ANALYSES of SIZED and UNSIZED YARNS 95 


Section IT. 


Photographs of each specimen illustrating surface 
characteristics. Multiplication of 4 diameters. 


Section ITT. 


Photo-micrographs of a cross section of each specimen 
of sized yarn to illustrate size absorption or penetration. 

These analyses are described at length on the following 
pages. 

No attempt has been made to interpret the meaning of 
the various values obtained in the tests or the character- 
istics featured in the photographs. Opinions vary to such 
an extent that it is thought desirable to leave this to the 
individual reader. 


In examining the photo-micrographs it is well to bear 
in mind that sizing materials in the dressed yarn appear 
in the picture of the cross section as black blotches. 
Presumably therefore, a sample which shows the indi- 
vidual fibres surrounded by such blotches is coated with 
sizing, and a sample which shows such blotches inter- 
spersed among the fibres is a sample which has been 
penetrated by the sizing. 


RESULTS OF TESTS OF THREE BOBBINS OF GREY YARN AND NINE 
SAMPLES OF SIZED YARN 














Hygroscopic 
Yarn Per Cent. Test After Per 
Single Variation overnight | Cent. 
Sample Sample Strength from Elasticity| exposure at | Sizing 
No. Marked (Pounds) Average T295 on 
(64% Per Cent. Relative Sized 
Regain) Strength Humidity | Yarn 
Per Cent. | Weight 

Regain 

1 23s Grey 45 14 10 - 7.15 
2 “H” 78 10 6 8.17 6.58 
3 le 1.04 12 7 Sil 4.80 
4 ee ake) 10 6 8.08 HSM 
5 Prime Tallow ol 10 6 8.49 7.87 
6 Hel .81 12 6 8.71 7.89 

7 19s Grey .73 9 10 7.19 
8 sedi? .86 14 6 8.62 11.47 
9 FL? 78 13 6 8.46 9.44 

10 30s Grey 46 12 9 7.56 
11 eat a6) 18 6 8.83 10.36 
12 Sale kee 45 16 7 8.48 10.34 


96 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


METHOD 
I. PHYSICAL TBSa5 


(a) Yarn Single Strength: 


Figures representing the strength of single yarns as 
shown in column No. 3 of the section entitled “Results 
of Physical Tests’ were obtained as follows: 


Specimens were exposed approximately 18 hours to an 
atmospheric condition of 70° Fahr., and 72% Relative 
Humidity. Fifty single yarns were then selected at 
random from each sample and were broken separately 
on a Scott Single Yarn Testing Machine of 5 pounds 
capacity, the speed of jaw separation being 13 inches per 
minute and the space between jaws 12 inches. ‘The 
values obtained at the point of rupture were then 
corrected to a condition of 644% moisture regain, accord- 
ing to the Cotton Research Company standard basis for 
expressing yarn strength and count, and an average taken. 


(b) Per Cent. Variation from Average Strength: 


Figures representing the per cent. variation from 
average strength, as shown in the fourth column of the 
same section were obtained as follows: 


The difference between each individual strength value 
as found in (a) and the average of these values was 
measured. ‘These differences were then averaged, and 
the resulting figure divided by the average strength value 
and multiplied by 100, thus being converted to a per- 
centage basis. 


In interpreting these figures it should be noted that 
they represent an arbitrary scale of value for the purpose 
of recording differences in evenness, and that the larger 
the figure the less even the yarn. 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK CROSS SECTIONS of SIZED YARNS MAGNIFIED TEXTILE HAND-BOOK CROSS SECTIONS of SIZED YARNS MAGNIFIED PLATE V. CHAPTER XIV 









































SAMPLE No.2. “H” COMPOUND ¢ «py 
o SAMPLE NO. 3. “I” COMPOUND SAMPLE NO.4. “J” COMPOUND SAMPLE NO.5. PRIME BEEF TALLOW SAMPLE NO.6. “K” COMPOUND 








is 


ANALYSES of SIZED and UNSIZED YARNS 97 


(c) Per Cent. Elasticity: 


Figures representing “‘Per Cent. Elasticity’”’ as shown 
in the fifth column of the section were obtained as 
follows: 


When obtaining strength values as described in (a), 
a value is also obtained indicating the elongation of the 
specimen at the time of rupture. The individual values 
for elongation are divided by the length of specimen 
(12 inches in this case) and multiplied by 100. The 
resulting figures represent the percentage of elongation 
or elasticity. 


(d) Hygroscopic Test: 


Figures appearing in the sixth column entitled “Hygro- 
scopic test—after over-night exposure at 72% relative 
humidity—per cent. regain,” represent the percentage of 
moisture regained by the several specimens after the 
exposure described. It will be noted that the amount 
of regain varies considerably with differences in size 
compound and amount of size. 


(e) Per Cent. Sizing on Sized Vee Weight: 


Figures appearing in the seventh column indicate the 
amount of size acquired by the specimen during the 
sizing process, as represented by a percentage figure 
based on the weight of the sized yarn. 


These figures were obtained as follows: 
1. The specimen was reduced to a bone dry condition 
and then weighed. 


2. Size was extracted by boiling the specimen for 
15 minutes in a 1% solution of hydrochloric acid. 


3. Traces of acid and size were removed by washing 
for 10 minutes three times in boiling water. 


4. The specimen was again reduced to a bone dry 
condition and weighed. 


7 


98 . TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


5. The difference between figures obtained in (1) 
and (4) was divided by the figure obtained in (1). From 
the resulting percentage the figure of 244%. was sub- 
tracted to allow for cotton loss during the processes, the 
remainder representing the percentage of size extracted. 


_II]. PHOTOGRAPHIC TREAT 


The photographic treatment, the results of which are 
seen in Section II. of the Analysis is as follows: 

A three-inch sample of the specimen is cemented to a 
glass slide. This is placed in the photographic apparatus 
and a picture taken at a magnification of 4 diameters. 


III. PHOTO-MICROGRAPHIC PROCEDURE 


Photo-micrographs appearing in the last section were 
the result of the following procedure. 


(a) A small specimen of the sample is arranged on a 
specially constructed wire rack and is then reduced to a 
bone dry condition in the conditioning oven. 


(b) The specimen, still on its rack, is immersed for six 
hours in a bath of melted paraffin at a temperature of 


135° to 140° Fahr. 


(c) At the end of six hours the parafhin is poured off 
and replaced with new parafhn in which the specimen 
remains for another six hours. 


(d) The second paraffin bath is replaced by a third, 
in which the specimen remains for one hour, at the end 
of which time it is chilled rapidly with ice water. 


(¢) A small block of hard paraffin, containing the speci- 
men, is cut away and soaked in cold water for twelve hours. 


(f) This block is placed in the microtome and slices 
are cut approximately .001 inch in thickness. 


(g) These slices are floated in an iodine solution which 
stains whatever starch may be contained in the specimen. 


CROSS SECTIONS of SIZED YARNS MAGNIFIED 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 
PLATE Vio (CHAR Ee heeahy, 








SAMPLE NO. 8. “J” COMPOUND 


SAMPLE NO.9. ‘“H’ COMPOUND 








ANALYSES of SIZED and UNSIZED YARNS oh, 


(h) The slices are taken from the iodine solution and 
afhxed to a microscope slide by means of an albuminous 
adhesive mixture. 


(1) The slide is heated gently for a few minutes, and 
then the parafhin is dissolved away in a preparation of 
Xylol, leaving the specimen of yarn affixed to the slide. 


(7) The specimens are coated with Canada Balsam 
and a cover glass is applied. 


(k) The slide is placed in the photographic apparatus, 
the lens is adjusted and a picture is taken at a magnifi- 
cation of 250 diameters. 


CHAP LE Raia 
STARCH 


Starch in one form or other is commonly used in size 
as the adhesive agent because of low cost and general 
efficiency. 


In the United States the most commonly used starches 
are those obtained from corn and potato. 


Corn starch is used for the coarser counts of yarn, 
while potato starch is better adapted for the finer yarns. 
For sizing very fine yarns tapioca and sago starches are 
often used. 


Wheat starch is occasionally used for sizing, but its 
use is more general in England than in the United States. 


Other starches of more or less commercial value are 
those obtained from barley, rye, oats, rice and arrowroot. 


Starch as produced from the grain or root, generally 
speaking, is in the form of white shiny granules, con- 
sisting of an outer shell-like material which is composed 
of a substance called starch cellulose, and an inside body 
which is known as granulose. It is this body of granulose 
that gives starch the adhesive property. Starch in this 
form is known as Pearl Starch. 


Pearl starch is insoluble in cold water. This is because 
the outside coating of cellulose resists the action of cold 
water and hence does not allow it to penetrate into the 
granulose body. 


When heated with water these granules swell to many 
times their original size and finally the granulose bursts 
through the shell or outer coating of cellulose and forms 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK CROSS SECTIONS of SIZED YARNS MAGNIFIED 
PLATE VIL CHAR TE heen ie 











SAMPLE No. 11. ‘J’ COMPOUND SAMPLE NO. 1253? COMPOUND 


See Additional Photo-Microscopic Reproductions 
in Appendix Page 157 








i 
> ee 





STARCH 101 


with the water a thick and heavy mass or jelly. This 
jelly-like mass is not a true solution, but is known as a 
colloid solution. 


A colloid may be denfied as a substance incapable of 
penetrating membranes. 


If this colloid solution were subjected to a filtering 
operation, it would be found that the water would pass 
through the filter, leaving the mass of colloidal starch 
lying on the surface of the filter. 


However, if this colloidal solution were heated for a 
long enough period, it would be converted over to a true 
solution and if thrown upon a filter it would be found to 
pass entirely through without breaking up or leaving 
any deposit on the surface of the paper. ‘This action is 
chemically known as hydrolysis, in which the semi- 
soluble granulose is changed over to a substance known 
as dextrine, which is entirely soluble in water. 


The yarn is prepared for weaving by sizing the thread 
with a starch mixture, the purpose of which is to cement 
the fibres together, which would naturally strengthen 
the yarn. It is obvious that this will be more efficiently 
effected if the size is prepared and the materials are 
selected so that a thorough penetration is produced 
instead of forming a film on the surface of the thread. 


When size is made up with Pearl starch, care must be 
taken to boil it for a long enough period after the starch 
has “‘jelled,” in order to thoroughly convert the granulose 
over to the soluble dextrine. 


If a complete conversion over to dextrine is not ac- 
complished, the cotton fibres will act as filters when the 
size 1s applied and will prevent the colloidal starch from 
passing into the inside. 


Thus the size is deposited on the outside of the yarn 
instead of penetrating into the interior, and does not 


102 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


give the strength to the yarn that is desired, and will, 
in addition, shed or drop off the yarn in excess quantity 
while being woven. 


The reason for this is that the shell of starch cellulose 
prevents the water from coming in contact with the 
starchy matter or granulose, so that it cannot react with 
or take up the water necessary for its conversion over to 
dextrine or soluble starch. 


Excessive and prolonged boiling converts this granu- 
lose over into dextrine, which is absolutely soluble and 
possesses high power of penetration. 


The length of time necessary to effect this change, 
however, 1s not within limits to permit of its being 
practised. 


There is another class of starches, called modified 
starches, which have been chemically treated, and have 
had the shell of starch cellulose removed to a greater or 
less extent. This starch is sold under different grade 
names termed degrees of fluidity, such as 20, 40, etc., the 
degree of fluidity of the starch indicating the extent of 
which this starch cellulose shell has been removed, and 
the length of time necessary to produce a solution from 
it and its degree of penetration. 


The terms “modified” and “fluidity” as applied to 
starch are sometimes confusing because the various 
manufacturers use their own systems or methods in 
determining the different grades. The terms 20, 40, etc. 
degree fluidity is a comparison of the rate of flow of a 
starch paste through a fixed orifice and the flow of water. 


There is no standard method among starch manu- 
facturers for determining starch fluidities. While the 
basic principal of all methods is the same, each have 
their own refinements, such as preparation of sample, 
quality of the paste, temperatures, apparatus eee: 


STARCH 103 


40 degree starch from one company should not be 
expected to give the same results as 40 degree from 
another company. 


In considering two or more starches from a fluidity 
point of view, the following method an be used and will 
give very accurate results. It must be remembered that 
this method is only a comparison of the rates of flow of 
different starch pastes and has no relation to any 
standards of fluidity. 


Therefore, to get the most valuable results, a starch, 
of which the characteristics and results produced at 
slasher are known, should be tested and this test taken 
as standard. Then run all the other starches in exactly 
the same manner, which will show a greater or less 
fluidity than the sample. 


RELATIVE FLOW TESTS ON STARCHES 


Weigh out exactly 2 grams of the starch and place in 
a flask with 60 c.c. of cold water; add exactly 6 c.c. of 
10% solution of caustic soda and shake until completely 
gelatinized; now add enough water to make just 100 c.c., 
shake well and allow to stand for a half-hour at least; 
shake well and take temperature, pour through a short 
neck two-inch funnel and collect 50 c.c., noting the exact 
time that it takes to collect the 50 c.c. Now repeat in 
order to check the work. Do this with all the other 
starches that are to be examined and a very good com- 
parison of relative penetrating powers is easily shown. 
The temperature in each case must be exactly the same. 


This same test can be made on modified starches by 
making them up 5 grams to the hundred and heating to 
form the paste instead of using the caustic soda; when 
running through funnel, be sure that same temperature 
is used in each case or test is worthless, due to the fact 
that when these liquids are hot they flow much quicker 
than when cold. It is a good idea to try modified starches 
at two different temperatures. 


104 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


The advantages of using modified starch over pearl 
starch are: 


1. They are more soluble and, therefore, take less 
time to produce the necessary size. 


2. Modified starch produces a size having higher 
penetrating properties. 


3. Modified starch boils thinner than pearl starch and, 
therefore, can be used to take the place of more expensive 
starches. As an example, modified corn starch is rapidly 
displacing pearl potato starch as a sizing agent. 


All the starches do not require the same amount of 
heat to paste or gelatinize, so in preparing size from the 
various starches, care must be taken to select the proper 
quantity of starch for a given volume of size liquor and 
boil the size the proper length of time. 


It must be remembered that while it is very necessary 
to boil long enough to convert all the starch to dextrine, 
size should not be over boiled. 


The dextrine is what is desired in the size, as it has the 
maximum penetrating power, producing a firm body in 
the yarn and the maximum strength. 


If, after the dextrine is produced in the size bath, the 
mixture is allowed to boil longer, hydrolysis continues to 
take place and changes the dextrine over to dextrose, 
which is a very thin body and produces no strengthening 
effect in the yarn. 


So then if size is allowed to boil for too long a period, 
it converts the desirable dextrine, which is ideal for sizing, 
over to the weak dextrose which would produce soft, 
sticky, and in general, a very unsatisfactory yarn. 


So it is very important that the size be boiled for the 
proper length of time, which in the case of modified 
starches, is from 45 minutes to one hour and for pearl 
starches, three or four hours. 


STARCH 105 


Where readily prepared, dextrines or thin _ boiling 
starches, as they are often called, are used, they are 
boiled just long enough to produce a solution, usually 
15 to 30 minutes. The high price of dextrine, however, 
prohibits its use as a sizing agent. 


Dextrine is produced commercially by allowing diluted 
mineral acids to act on the starch granules. This process 
is carefully watched, and must be stopped at a certain 
time, otherwise the action continues until glucose 1s 
formed. 


This produces the same product that boiling with water 
does, except that in the case of acid the action is faster. 


All starches do not start to paste or gelatinize at the 
same temperature, so all do not require the same amount 
of ae The gelatinizing temperature of potato starch 
foe ero Bahr.); corn’ /5°.C. (168° Fahr.); wheat 
BOset?. (176° Fahr.); rice 80° C. (176° Fahr.); arrowroot 
poe ec. staat); and tapioca 65° C. (150°. Fahr.). 
At these temperatures the granules have been completely 
ruptured and the jelly-like substance has been fully 
formed. By sustaining a temperature about 5° C. (10° 
Fahr.) above these temperatures, the best results can be 
obtained with plain starch size; but of course, prolonged 
heating will form dextrose. Potato and tapioca form 
pastes quickly, whereas corn, wheat, rice and arrowroot 
require more time. 


The characteristics of the various starch pastes are: 
Wheat forms a white opaque paste which thickens quickly 
upon cooling; rice forms an opaque paste and requires 
some time to paste; corn forms a semi-opaque and thick 
paste; potato quickly forms a thick semi-transparent 
paste which becomes thinner upon boiling a short time; 
tapioca acts like potato; sago forms a thin paste, which 
penetrates easily. 


The only reliable method of testing starches for identity 
is by using the microscope, due to the fact that the 


106 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


granules of the various starches vary in size and shape. 
The test is simple and easy to perform. 


Place a small amount of the sample in a dish and add 
a couple of drops of alcohol or water, then put or spread 
a small amount of the mixture on the glass slide. 


TABLE OF STARCH CHARACTERISTICS AOR 


MICROSCOPE 


TABLE OF STARCH CHARACTERISTICS UNDER MICROSCOPE 





Starch Diameter 


Appearance 





Potato 60-100 microns 


Arrowroot 10-70 


Sago 25-65 
Tapioca 8-25 
Rice 5-8 

Corn 7-20 
Wheat 2-52 


ee 


Small granules are circular; larger granules oyster 
shape, with hilum near one end. 

Mussel like, some triangular with nipple like pro- 
jection on end near hilum which is sometimes 
cracked. Rings are also visible. 

Cut off oval or urn shape. Hilum is circular spot. 
Kettle drum or circular. Hilum is dot or short 
line in center. 

5 or 6 sided. Sharp angles. Usually in bunches. 
Smallest granules of all these. 

Circular with dented appearance, hilum is star 
or crack. 

Circular. Always two sizes, very small and large. 











STARCH 107 





(A) RICE STARCH (B) WHEAT STARCH 





(C) TAPIOCA STARCH (D) POTATO STARCH 
FIG. 58 A, B, C, D 
(Magnified approximately 150x) 


108 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 





(E) SAGO STARCH (F) ARROWROOT STARCH 





(G) CORN STARCH 
FIG. 58 E, F, G—continued 


(Magnified approximately 150x) 


STARCH 109 


IODINE TESTS WITH STARCHES 


Make up sample as follows: mix 5 grams with 500 c.c. 
of water and boil for 30 minutes; then add 1 c.c. of a 
solution of iodine made up 1 to 500 in water. Blue color 
with starches; rice quickly fades to a pink then dis- 
appears; wheat also fades to pink, but not so quickly; 
corn has red tinge; tapioca has violet tinge; potato, sago 
and arrowroot are deep blue. 


Another test is to make up pastes 5 parts to 100 and 
allow to stand; good starches will dry up, but poor 
starches will become moldy. 


TO GET PASTING POINTS 


Heat gradually 5 grams of sample in 100 c.c. of water; 
dip a glass slide in the solution frequently and examine 
to see if all the granules have been ruptured. Do not 
confuse air bubbles with granules. Note temperature at 
which pasting starts and when complete. Allow paste 
to cool and note color and thickness. 


110 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 





(A) CORN STARCH STARTING (B) CORN STARCH COMPLETELY 
TO PASTE PASTED 





(C) WHEAT STARCH STARTING TO PASTE 
FIG. 59 A, B,C. 
(Magnified approximately 150x) 


STARCH . 111 





(D) WHEAT STARCH COMPLETELY (E) POTATO STARCH STARTING 
PASTED TO PASTE 





(F) POTATO STARCH COMPLETELY PASTED 
FIG. 59 D, E, F—continued 
(Magnified approximately 150x) 


jak TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


Test starch for soluble impurities by shaking 5 grams 
with cold water and filtering; evaporate the filtrate and 
examine for foreign matter. 


For inorganic impurities: heat the starch sample to 
high enough temperature to remove the carbon, and 
examine ash which should not be more than one per cent. 


Place sample on piece of glass and rub with knife; 
gritty particles will show presence of impurities. 


CHAPTER XVI 
PREPARATION of SIZE 


There is coming into general use a method of circu- 
lating the size through the slasher. 


By this method the size is made up, and then pumped 
to a circulating tank which is placed higher than the size 
box of the slasher machine, so that it feeds by gravity 
from this storage tank. An overflow arrangement is lo- 
cated at the size box of the slasher and the overflow is 
pumped back into the circulating tank. This overflow 
attachment keeps the size at a constant level and elimi- 
nates the possibility of soft spots in the yarn. A steam 
coil is built into the circulating tank so that the liquor 
can be kept at a uniform temperature. 


The size is made up in another tank called the mixing 
tank. This should contain an open steam coil for boiling, 
and be fitted with a mechanical stirrer. 


This tank should have a total capacity of about 200 
gals., and each batch of size should be 175 gals. This 


arrangement leaves ample space for the mixture to boil. 


The volume of size, as made, should be based on its 
final volume rather than on the amount of water used. 


If 917> gals. of size are to be made, about 150 gals. 
of cold water should be run into the tank. ‘The starch 1s 
weighed out and placed in the tank, and this mixture of 
starch and water agitated for 15 minutes in order to 
break up lumps. ‘The softener is then added, and the 
steam is turned on. After the mixture comes to a boil, 
the agitation should be continued from 30 to 75 minutes, 
depending upon the kind and grade of starch, and then 
discontinued. 


8 


114 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


Upon examination it will be found that the volume of 
size has increased, due to the condensed steam. A stick, 
on which a notch has been cut, indicating the 175-gal. 
depth, is then inserted in the mass and water is run in 
until the level reaches the notch. 


Steam is then turned on gently for about 5 minutes, in 
order to compensate for any loss in temperature caused 
by the final addition of cold water, and the mass is then 
pumped to the circulating tank. 

The important points to consider in connection with 
the preparation of size are: 


L Selection of the proper starch. 
(Should be a modified corn starch of about 40° 
fluidity for medium and heavy yarns. Potato 
starch or dextrine for fine yarns.) 


ve Selection of softener or sizing assistant. 
(Should be a pure softener containing no loading 
agents, and possessing the property of perfectly 
blending with the starch, and having the highest 
penetrating powers.) 

3. Time of boiling. 
(For 40° corn starch the boiling time should be 
about one hour. Potato starch 30 to 45 minutes.) 


4, Quantity of size to prepare at one time. 

(The quantity of size prepared should be the 
quantity that can be used by the slasher in about 
two hours, inasmuch as the starch continues to 
hydrolyze or thin out while standing at a high 
temperature. If the size is kept too long the 
warps which are sized with the last portion of the 
batch will be much softer than those sized with 
the fresh mixture.) 


APPLICATION OFssiZE 


The keynote of proper sizing is perfect penetration. 


If the size does not penetrate the yarn and is deposited 
on the surface, there will be excessive slufhng and 


PREPARATION of SIZE tS 











FIG. 60. CROSS SECTION VIEW OF SIZED COTTON YARN 
(Magnified 250x) 
Showing almost perfect penetration of the size. Dark portion indicates size. 
Note thorough penetration of individual fibres in the center of yarn, 


shedding. This condition can be overcome by the 
selection of the proper starch and softener, and the 
preparation of the size. 


The maintenance of the correct temperature in the 
slasher box is of great importance, and should not be 
overlooked. 


116 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 





FIG. 69-A. CROSS SECTION VIEW OF SIZED COTTON YARN 
(Magnified 250x) 
Showing a poorly sized yarn with very little penetration of size. Dark portion 
indicates size, 


If the temperature of the size liquor is allowed to drop 
the size becomes thicker or more viscous. This reduces 
the penetrating properties of the size, inasmuch as a thin 
fluid is always more penetrating than a viscous, or thick 
mixture. 

The starch has a tendency to cling to the surface of 
the yarn. It has been found by exhaustive experiments 
that a temperature of from 190° to 250° Fahr. is the ideal 
temperature for the slasher box. 


PREPARATION of SIZE 117 








FIG. 60-B. CROSS SECTION VIEW OF SIZED COTTON YARN 
(Magnified 250x) 
Showing poor penetration of size with a large percentage of the size deposited on 
surface of yarn. Dark portion indicates size. 


Below 195° Fahr. the starch approaches the “cold” 
state and lacks perfect penetration. Keeping the 
temperature above 200° Fahr. tends to accelerate the 
thinning action of the size, so that the end of the mixture 
is much thinner than at the start. 

After the yarn leaves the size box it passes over two 
large steam-heated cylinders or drying cans, the purpose 
of which is to dry the yarn. 


118 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


It is a mistake to drive all moisture from the yarn, as 
this produces harsh yarn,.and consequently bad running 
work. ‘The natural moisture content of sized yarn is 
from 8 to 10%, and the heat of the cans should be so 
regulated as to allow this natural moisture to remain 
in the yarn as it leaves the slasher. 


A common practice is to drive all moisture from the 
yarn or “bake” it, and then attempt to replace the 
moisture by maintaining a high humidity in the weave 
shed. 

This method is liable to overcharge the cloth with 
moisture, which tends to increase mildew in the cloth. 


Yarns that have been baked on the drying cans cannot 
be brought back to that soft and flexible condition which 
proper drying produces, but will remain harsh no matter 
what the degree of humidity in the weave shed. 


It is a better practice to dry the yarns at the slasher, 
so they contain a moisture content of 8 to 10%, and 
retain enough humidity to maintain this condition, 
rather than bake the yarns and then attempt to secure 
the soft, flexible effect that natural moisture produces, 
than to overcharge the atmosphere with moisture. 


PURPOSE OF SIZING 


Sizing of warp yarns should be carried on with the 
primary purpose of preparing them for the loom. 


They should contain only enough size to sustain the 
warp during the weaving operation. 


In some instances, it is desirable to obtain a large 
increase in weight. This is accomplished, of course, by 
using a heavy size mixture. 


However, due to the large amount of size, present the 
yarn is more liable to be harsh, and careful attention 
should be paid to the softener in order to overcome this 
harshness. 


PREPARATION of SIZE 119 


Increase in weight or load is due to the dry size on the 
slashed yarns, and when determining this load the 
amount of moisture present should be given consideration. 


It is common practice to calculate the load of sized 
yarn by comparing the net weight of the sized yarn, as 
delivered on the loom beam at the slasher, with the weight 
of the yarn before slashing. The increase in weight 
shown by this comparison is accepted as the actual 
increase. 


If the moisture content of the soft yarn and sized yarn 
were the same this method would be accurate enough. 
However, sized yarn is never the same as the soft in 
moisture content and, therefore, due to this discrepancy 
in moisture the load is not correct when calculated by 
the above method. 


It has been ascertained by running comparative tests 
on different batches of cotton of the same construction 
and count, and by using the same size formula and 
slasher, vastly different results were obtained. 


During a series of five tests made with the same yarn, 
under the same conditions, it was found that no two were 
alike and that the results ran from an increase of 8% for 
the lowest to 15% for the highest. 


It has been found by using the above method that 
where one mill was obtaining an increase of 11% on a 
certain yarn, another mill, running the same kind of 
yarn and using the same size formula, was obtaining 20 


and #217: 


The only accurate method to determine the load on 
warp yarns is by a chemical analysis. 


However, a fairly accurate method which is rapidly 
coming into general use 1s as follows: 


Eight bobbins, which represent the yarn under test, are 
selected, and skeins are reeled off each bobbin and set 
aside. These bobbins are then taken to the slasher, and 
the remaining yarn is run through the slasher and wound 


120 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


upon the spools. Enough of this sized yarn should be 

collected so that eight more skeins can be produced, 

equal in length to the skeins of soft yarn. ‘These sixteen 

ekelne are then hung in the weave shed for ten or twelve 
ours 


This allows each of the skeins to absorb the same 
amount of moisture from the air. The skeins are then 
weighed, and the increase of the sized skeins over the 
ae anaes the increase in weight produced by the 
slasher. 


The relation of the softener in the size to the increase 
in weight of the slashed yarn is not as a rule clearly 
understood. 


The general belief is that the softener or sizing assist- 
ant actually adds considerable weight to the yarn, where 
in reality the only weight added to the yarn by the 
softener is the weight of its own body. 


The real function of the softener in connection with 
weight increase is to keep the starch, which is the real 
weighting agent, in a condition that allows of its excessive 
use to produce excessive weight. As the weight of the 
load increases the harshness of the yarn also increases. 
Harshness is a detriment in the weave room, and, although 
it is desirable to put a certain load on the yarn the harsh- 
ness produced may be too great at that load and so pre- 
vent its use. The proper softener however, should be 
capable of conditioning the sized yarn so that any reason- 
able amount of load could be obtained, and still maintain 
the proper weaving ability of the yarn. 


There is no fixed standard of increase in weight of 
slashed yarns. Best running work is produced when the 
strength of the sized yarn shows an increase of 11 to 15% 
over the soft. 


Tests were made to ascertain what effect upon the 
strength of yarn was due to the preparation of the size, 
and the results obtained were very interesting. 


PREPARATION of SIZE 121 


Size cooked for thirty minutes showed an increase in 
tensile strength of 6%, proving conclusively that the 
starch was not converted to a soluble condition, and as 
a result very little, if any, penetrated the fibre. Con- 
siderable starch was deposited upon the surface. 


Size cooked for one hour showed an increase of 14% 
strength. The starch was converted to a soluble state 
and good penetration followed. 


Size cooked two hours, showed an increase of 10% 
strength in the yarn. 


This loss, as compared with size cooked one hour was 
due to over-boiling of the starch. 


Size kept at a high temperature for six hours showed an 
increase of but 3% strength, due to the fact that all of 
the dextrine was broken up and changed over to dextrose, 
the latter possessing very little strengthening properties. 


These tests merely emphasize the necessity of watching 
closely the boiling time in the preparation of the size. 


The same grade of starch was used in making these 
strength tests. 


CHAR DE Rex it 
WEAVING 


During the weaving process the warp yarns are drawn 
through a series of two or more sets of heddles which 
constitute the harness of the loom. The action of the 
harness in pulling the warp yarns into different positions 
produces the various designs or styles in the woven cloth. 
The yarns also pass through the reed. This makes 
necessary the operation of “‘drawing in.” 


“Drawing in” consists of threading the yarn through 
the heddle eyes or dents in the reed. 


During weaving, the warp yarns as taken from the loom 
beam are first run through a series of lease rods, which 
separates any threads that may be adhering to other 
threads. They then pass through a series of two or more 
vertical cords or wires called heddles, and which forms 
the harness. Each of these heddles has a loop in the 
middle to receive a warp thread. The method of draw- 
ing the threads in the harness produces the design of 
the cloth, and there are two or more sets of harness used, 
depending on the character of the cloth to be woven. 
For a cloth of plain weave the heddles are so threaded 
or drawn in, that every second thread of the warp passes 
through the loop of one set of heddles, other yarns are 
passed through the loops of the second set. This produces 
a cloth on the surface of which appears each alternate 
warp thread for each pick of filling. 


When the loom is set in motion these heddles alternately 
rise and fall, causing alternative warp threads to be pulled 
up and down. This action of separating the threads forms 
an opening between the layers of yarn called the shed, 
through which theshuttle carrying the filling thread is shot. 


WEAVING 123 


The warp yarns are further threaded through a comb- 
like structure called a reed, which comes forward, after 
the shuttle passes through the shed, and carries the filling 
thread up to the point where the warp threads come 
together. 


The heddles then reverse causing the warp threads to 
be pulled into opposite positions, and forming another 
shed, through which the shuttle again passes. 


This action continues and rapidly builds up the cloth, 
which is automaticaily rolled up as it is produced. 





Crompton F Knowles Loom Works 
FIG. 57. PLAIN LOOM 


Although the harness and reed are considered parts 
of the loom they are detachable, and must be removed 
for the purpose of drawing in the yarn. 


124 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 





FIG. 63. PLAIN LOOM—SPECIMEN OF WEAVING 


WEAVING 125 





FIG, 57-A. PLAIN LOOM—SECTIONAL VIEW 


Fig. 57-A, is a section of a plain loom. 

It shows the loom beam A, on which is wound the 
sized warp yarns; harnesses C and D, and reed F in place. 
The action is that immediately following the passage of 
the shuttle through the shed, and shows the reed F push- 
ing the filling thread up to woven part of the cloth. This 
action is known as “beating up’. B-B are the lease rods 


126 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


for the purpose of keeping the yarn separated. E shows 
the shed formed by the harnesses C and D pulling the 
alternate warp threads into opposite positions. G is the 
lay or sley on which the shuttle rests before being driven 
through the shed by the picker stick (not shown). At 
the instant that the shuttle is passing through the shed 
the position of Gis at the shed E with the reed F standing 
close to front harness D. 


Immediately following the passage of the shuttle 
through the shed the reed moves forward, carrying the 
filling yarn up to the point of the woven cloth, as shown. 
H is the shuttle guard, and J is the reed cap which holds 
the reed in place. K is the cloth roll, and shows the woven 
cloth being batched or rolled up. 





FIG, 61. SHUTTLES 








U.S. Bobbin S Shutile Co. 


The shuttle (Fig. 61) is a hollow boat-shaped object 
in which the bobbin of yarn as produced at the 
spinning frame is inserted. -One end of the shuttle 
contains an eye through which the yarn passes, as the 
shuttle traverses back and forth between the warp 
threads. The bobbin is inserted in the shuttle so that 
it is held tight and stationery. The yarn is unwound by 
slipping over the top of the bobbin. 


WEAVING 127 


here it is desired to produce a cloth with a design 
on its surface, three or more harnesses are used. 








Crompton &F Knewles Loom Works 
FIG. 62. DOBBY COTTON LOOM 


These designs are produced by the harness pulling a 
certain set of warp threads up for two or three picks of 
the shuttle, so that these warp yarns appear on the surface 
of the cloth for that number of picks, or it may be re- 
versed and show the filling thread on the surface. At 
the same time another set of warps may be held up for 


128 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 





FIG. 64 DOBBY LOOM—SPECIMEN OF WEAVING 





Courtesy, - 
Crompton &F Knowles one or two picks. 
Loom Works By this method of 


manipulating the 
harnesses, a cloth is 
woven on the sur- 
face of which ap- 
pears a certam 
design, due to the 
arrangement of the 
various threads. 


The limited size 
of the dobby, to- 
gether with the cor- 
responding harn- 
esses, restricts the 
use of this mech- 
anism to the pro- 
duction of certain 
designs. Because of the large number of warp threads 
it is necessary to draw in a considerable number in each 


FIG. 65. DOBBY HEAD 


WEAVING 


129 


harness, hence the nature of the design is limited by 
the combinations available from drawing 10 or 20 warp 
threads to a harness. 


If there were a harness for each warp thread the designs 





Crompton F Knowles Loom Works 


FIG, 65. 


JACQUARD COTTON LOOM 


available would be 
unlimited, due to 
the different com- 
binations that 
could be obtained 
by changing one 
warp thread at a 
time. 


Such an arrange- 
ment however, is 
produced in what 
is known as a Jac- 
quard loom and 
which has a sepa- 
rate harness (200 
to 2600) for each 
thread of the warp. 
The number of de- 
signs capable of 
production on the 
Jacquard is unlim- 
ited, by reason of 
the fact that any 
one of total num- 
ber of the warp 
threads may be 
pulled up or down 
at will. 


130 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 





F1G., "66. JACQUARD LOOM—SPECIMEN OF WEAVING 


It is also possible to produce a design which requires 
a change in the color of the filling. 


The “Box Loom” is used for this purpose. It con- 
sists of a number of shuttle boxes on each side of the loom 
containing shuttles 
holding different col- 
ored yarn. When the 
color of the filling is 
to be changed a me- 
gE chanical device pla- 

J gee er ces the shuttle con- 
pase sae ape Oe taining the required 

ope eon colored yarn in place 
for the picker to 
drive across the 


loom. 


It can readily be 
seen that during the 
FIG. 67. MAGNIFIED SECTION FIG. 66 Weaving process 





WEAVING 131 


on the modern loom the liability of a warp thread break- 
ing is always present. This often occurs and it 1s neces- 
sary to stop the loom as soon after the break as possible. 
Practically all modern looms are equipped with an auto- 
matic stop, which acts promptly, in case a warp ee 
breaks, and brings the machine to rest, . 


‘ 


If the filling yarn breaks, or the shuttle bobbin 
becomes empty, a “‘weft-fork”’ detects the fact and stops 
the loom. There are other looms in use where the 
breakage or exhaustion of the filling thread automatically 
ejects the empty bobbin from the shuttle and replaces 
it with a full one. {See Fig. 71 on Page 133.) 








Crompton &F 
Knowles 
Loom Works 


FIG. 68.. BOX LOOM 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 





FIG, 69, 


SPECIMEN OF COTTON WARP AND SILK FILLING— 


WOVEN ON A BOX LOOM 


The latter device requires a special attachment to the 
loom, but its advantage is in the automatic replacement 
of empty bobbins, and the elim:nation of stops in case 


of filling breakage. 


So that a weaver may take care of more looms than 
was formerly possible, it is necessary that the filling be 











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AR SORE POY Won 


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Pes BO LL6, 
geek 
COLES. 


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Ray ep 


LY , Ih 
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FIG. 70. MAGNIFIED SECTION FIG. 69 


replenished either 
when it breaks or just 


before the bobbin 


becomes empty. 


The method to em- 
ploy depends upon 
the grade of cloth de- 
sired. If a perfect 
grade of cloth, then 
the bobbin must be 
replaced by a full one 
just before it is empty. 


WEAVING 133 


To do this, a feeler is attached to the loom, the 
“feeler” device is placed on one end of the loom, and is 
so set that it will operate by coming in contact with the 
yarn on the filling bobbin. 


Just before the filling has run off the bobbin, this de- 
vice will operate the transferring motion, and a new 
filled bobbin will be placed in the shuttle without stop- 
ping the loom. 





Crompton & Knowles 
Loom Works 





FIG. 71. WARP AUTOMATIC STOP MOTION 


To eliminate bad spots in the cloth, due to breakage 
of the warps, it 1s necessary to stop the loom when a 
break occurs. 


A device called the warp stop motion is used for this 
purpose. Each warp thread passes through a very fine 
piece of steel called a “Drop Wire.” 


When a warp thread breaks the wire drops down and 
the warp stop motion stops the loom, and so prevents 
the weaving of imperfect cloth. 





TEXTILE HAND BOOK 


PART THREE 
MANUFACTURE of CLOTH 


CHAPTER XVIII 
CEO i 


LOTH is usually woven on the basis of a certain 
construction and weight. 


By construction is meant the number of warp threads 
per inch and the number of filling threads per inch. 
Thus a cloth may have a construction of 46 x 48 which 
means 46 ends of warp per inch and 48 ends of filling 
per inch. Again the construction may be 48 x 48 which 
means 48 ends per inch each way or 48 square. The first 
figure always indicates warp threads per inch, while the 
second refers to the filling threads per inch. 


The weight of cloth is usually expressed as so many 
yards per pound, or as in the case of heavy goods so 
many ounces per yard. 


Having decided on a cloth of certain construction and 
weight the next thing necessary is to figure the count of 
the yarn to produce the weight desired. 


The calculation consists of finding the number of yards 
of yarn in a yard of the cloth, and calculating the count 
of the yarn that will produce the required weight. 


Assume a cloth of 48 x 48 construction, 39’ wide and 
to have a weight of 5 yards per pound. 


There are 48 threads of warp for each inch of the width 
of the cloth. In 39” there would be 48 x 39 or 1872 
threads of warp. Each selvage contains 8 threads which 
would add 16 to the above number making a total of 
1888 warp threads. One yard of cloth would, therefore, 
contain 1888 yards of warp thread. 


There are also 48 threads of filling per inch. Multi- 
plying 48 x 36 gives the number of filling threads in a 


CLO es IY, 


yard of cloth or 1728. Each of these threads are 39” long 
which would make 67,392” or 1872 yards of filling per 
yard of cloth. 


1888 + 1872 =3760 apparent yards of warp and filling 
per yard of cloth. 


Due to the half bend of the warp, and filling around 
each other, an allowance of about 5% should be made 
and added to the above figure. 


This would give a total yardage of warp and filling of 
395 -varus. 


Multiplying this figure by 5 gives us the yardage of 
warp and filling in 5 yards, or one pound of the cloth. 


The count of yarn is the number of hanks of 840 yards 
each contained in one pound. 


Therefore, dividing the above by 840 gives the count of 
the yarn necessary for thegoods. This figure would be 23.5. 


In other words, the average count of warp and filling 


at the loom should be 23.5. 


The filling is usually lighter than the warp so we can 
make the filler 24s, and the warp 23s, and still maintain 
the same average. 


It has been mentioned that this is the count of the 
yarn at theloom. The filling requires no treatment after 
leaving the spinning frame so it is spun the same count 
as it is used in the loom. 


However, the warp has to be slashed or sized and in 
so treating it gains, we will say, 10% in weight. If this 
10% in weight were added to 23s yarn their count at 
the loom would be about 21 and consequently produce a 
heavier cloth than was desired. In order to eliminate 
this discrepancy the spinning frame should deliver lighter 
or higher count yarns to the slasher, so that the weight as 
produced at the slasher will bring the yarns up to the 
required weight for the loom. 


138 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


These 23s warp yarns will include the 10% weight 
added by the slasher. In other words, 90% is due to the 
actual cotton in the yarn. ‘Therefore, 23 divided by 0.9 
would give us the theoretical count to be spun by the 
spinning frame or 25.5s. The figures above would be 
slightly changed by the individual mill practices, due to 
variation in the tension of the cloth in the loom, and 
usually a constant or factor is used to convert the 
theoretical figure over to the practically correct figure. 


The cloth as it is taken off the looms is in the form of 
aroll. At intervals of a certain distance, usually 60 yards, 
there is printed a small mark called a cut mark. This 
mark is produced on the warp by an automatic measuring 
device attached to the slasher. When the cloth roll of 
the loom is about full it is watched until the next cut 
mark appears. The cloth is cut at this mark and sent 
to the cloth room. By this arrangement all the cloth in 
the roll can be divided into 60 yard pieces, or full cuts. 


Usually there are no further operations at the mill 
except folding and baling. 


In some instances the cloth is passed cet: a machine 
and then calendered. te 


The cloth is then folded evenly into folds of 1 yard 
and cut into pieces 60 yards or 12U yards in length. The 
120 yard cuts are known as double cuts. They are then 
baled, and these “gray” goods, that are to be used for 
dyed or bleached material, are sent to the converter or 
finisher. ae 


CHAPTER XIX 
BUMED LLY 


An important feature in the efficient operation of a 
cotton mill is the quantity of moisture in the air. The 
moisture condition of the air is known as humidity. 
Every cotton mill man realizes that moisture is neces- 
sary in order to obtain the best results. Dry cotton is 
hard to handle as it loses its strength when dry, and 
because of static electricity. 


All operations in manufacturing cloth require a certain 
amount of moisture in the air, and this fact was recog- 
nized years ago, in fact the old method was to wet 
down the floors or use steam “vapor pots.’ Mills were 
built near the water, or in some locality which was sub- 
jected to more than the usual amount of humidity. 


This was why New Bedford and Fall River, Mass., were 


considered ideal mill cities. 


But sprinkling the floors or locating in a moist section 
are not the only requirements. The moisture should be 
regulated so that the cotton will possess the necessary 
percentage at varying temperatures. [oo much moisture 
is as objectionable as too little moisture. 


When cotton fibres are dried they have the property 
of taking up moisture, or regain moisture up to 12 to 14% 
under certain conditions; but the regain percent. accepted 
as a standard by the National Association of Cotton 
Manufacturers is 8.5%. 


Many manufacturers of humidifying apparatus have 
a force of trained engineers to investigate the particular 
requirements of each individual mill, and recommend 
the best places to install humidifiers to meet the neces- 
sary requirements of each mill. 


140 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


Humidifiers work on the principal of spraying moisture 
into the room by having the water atomized, and then 
blown out with a current of air. As the moisture necessary 
for the different operations varies, the humidifiers are 
automatically controlled, and stop spraying when the 
air absorbs the proper amount of moisture. 


Cotton absorbs moisture readily, and humidification 
must be carefully planned to prevent an excess of 
moisture. 


Humidity deserves serious consideration and attention 
as it effects production and quality. 


In the opening and carding room only a small amount 
of moisture is needed. For combing, the relative 
humidity should be 60 to 65%; for the roving room, 
45 to 60%; spinning, 50 to 65%; warping, twisting, etc., 
60 to 70%; while the weave shed should have a relative 
humidity of 70 to 80%. 


CEA PCE Re 20x 


CALCULATIONS for the COTTON MILL 


RULES FOR FINDING SPEEDS, ETC. 
NOTE: 


The rules below relating to belting give results that are 
close enough for most practical purposes. Where greater 
refinement 1s destred, to the diameter of the pulley in each 
instance, add the thickness of the belt in inches. And if 
there 15 belt slippage it may be deducted whether 1%, 2%, 3%, 
etc. Usually this added refinement is considered of no 
great importance, consequently we have not embodied it in 
every rule. You may use it or not, just as you prefer. 


|. To find the R.P.M. of the driven shaft from the R.P.M. 
of the driver and the diameters of the pulleys. 
Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the driver by the 
diameter of the driving pulley in inches and 
divide by the diameter of the driven pulley in 
inches. 


2. To find the R.P.M. of the driven shaft from the R.P.M. 
of the driver and the number of teeth in the respective gears. 
Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the driver by the 
number of teeth in the driving gear and divide 

by the number of teeth in the driven gear. 


3. To find the diameter of driven pulley required to give the 
desired speed to the driven shaft. 
Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the driver by the 


diameter of the driving pulley in inches and 


divide the R.P.M. of the driven pulley. 


4. To find the number of teeth in a driven gear required to 
give the desired speed to the driven shaft. 
Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the driver by the 
number of teeth in the driving gear and divide 


by the R.P.M. of the driven gear. 


142 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


5. To find the diameter of the driving pulley in inches 
required to give a desired speed to the driven shaft. 


Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. required of the 
driven pulley by the diameter of the driven 
pulley in inches and divide by the R.P.M. of the 
driving pulley. 


6. To find the number of teeth in the driving gear required 
to give a desired spfoeed to the driven shaft. 


Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. required of the 
driven gear by the number of teeth in the driven 
gear and divide by the R.P.M. of the driving 


gear. 


7. To find the diameter of pulley in inches required in 
changing speeds, if the pulley to be changed is the driver. 


Rule: Multiply the diameter in inches of the 
pulley being removed by the R.P.M. desired of 
the driven shaft and divide by the R.P.M. of 
the driven shaft before the change. 


8. To find the number of teeth in a gear required in changing 
speeds if the gear to be changed is the driver. 


Rule: Multiply the number of teeth in the gear 
being removed by the R.P.M. desired of the 
driven gear, and divide by the R.P.M. of the 


driven gear before the change. 


9. To find the diameter of pulley in inches required in 
changing speeds, if the pulley to be changed is the driven 
pulley. 


Rule: Multiply the diameter in inches of the 
pulley being removed by the R.P.M. of the 
driven pulley before removal and divide by 
the R.P.M: of the driven pulley required after 
the change. 


CALCULATIONS 143 


10.. To find the number of teeth in a gear required in 
changing speeds if the gear to be changed is the driven gear. 


Rule: Multiply the number of teeth in the gear 
being removed by the R.P.M. of the driven gear 
before removal and divide by the R.P.M. of the 


driven gear required after the change. 


11. To find the R.P.M. of the driven pulley when both 
driving and driven pulleys are changed. 


Rule: Multiply the diameter of the driving 
pulley before the change by the diameter of the 
driven pulley after the change (both in inches), 
and call this result “A.’’ Then multiply the 
diameter of the driving pulley after the change 
by the diameter of the driven pulley before the 
change (both in inches) and that by the R.P.M. 
of the driven pulley before the change. Divide 
this result by “A.” 


12. To find the R.P.M. of the driven gear when both 


driving and driven gears are changed. 


Rule: Multiply the number of teeth in the 
driving gear before the change by the number of 
teeth in the driven gear after the change and call 
this result “A.”’ Then multiply the number of 
teeth in the driving gear after the change by the 
number of teeth in the driven gear before the 
change, and that by the R.P.M. of the driven gear 
before the change. Divide this result by “A.” 


13. To find the diameter of pulleys in inches to give a 
required speed of driven pulley, where the sum of the 
diameters of the driving and driven pulleys must always 
remain the same. 


Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the driving pulley 
by the sum of the two pulley diameters in inches 
and divide by the sum of the R.P.M. of the 
driving pulley and the R.P.M. required of the 


144 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


driven pulley. The result is the diameter in 
inches of the driven pulley. Subtract from the 
sum of the two pulley diameters and the 
remainder is the diameter of the driving pulley 
in inches. 


14. To find the number of teeth in gears to give a required 
speed of driven gear, where the sum of teeth in the driving 
and driven gears must always remain the same. 
Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the driving gear 
by the sum of teeth in the two gears and divide 
by the sum of the R.P.M. of the driving gear and 
the R.P.M. required of the driven gear. The 
result 1s the number of teeth in the driven gear. 
Subtract from the sum of teeth in the two gears 
and the remainder is the number of teeth in the 
driving gear. 


15. To find the surface speed in feet per minute of a cylinder © 
or pulley. 
Rule: Multiply the circumference in inches by 
the R.P.M. and divide by 12. 


16. To find the circumference in inches of a cylinder or 
pulley. 
Rule: Multiply the diameter in inches by 3.1416. 


17. To find the percentage of slippage in a belt drive. 
Rule: Subtract the actual R.P.M. of the driven 
pulley from its calculated R.P-M. Multiply the 
remainder by 100. Divide by the calculated 
speed of the driven pulley. 


18. To find the production of a Drawing Frame. 
Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the front roll by 
its circumference, by the time run in minutes 
and by the weight of the sliver in grains per 
yard, and divide by the inches per yard and the 
grains per pound. It is customary to allow 20% 
for stoppage. 


1: 


(a) From the speed of spindles, hank roving and twist. 


CALCULATIONS 
To find the production of a Roving Frame. 


Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the spindles by 
the time run in minutes and divide by the turns 
per inch, the inches per yard, the yards per 
hank, and hanks per pound. The answer will 
be the production at 100%. 


(6b) From the speed of the front roll. 


Rule: Multiply the R.P.M. of the front roll by 
its circumference, by the time run in minutes, 
and by the spindles per frame for a dividend, 
and multiply the inches per yard by the yards 
per hank and the hanks per pound for a divisor. 


(c) From the hank indicator, or clock. 


20. 


ZN. 


Rule: Multiply the number of hanks produced 
on a frame by the number of spindles in the 
frame and divide by the hank roving being 
made. The answer will be the actual production. 


Allowance for stoppage. 


Rule: No standard for stoppage can be made 
on roving frames. The amount will vary with 
the hank roving being made, the length of the 
frame, the size of the bobbin, and the twist put 
in. Many machine makes allow 15 minutes per 
doff for stoppage, when making their production 
tables. This is not practical. It may work on 
one class of work, or one size frame, but will 
not answer for all classes of work or all sizes of 
frames. 

The allowance may vary from 30% on slubbers 
to 5% on fine jacks. 


Twist is put in roving to give it strength. 


Rule: In deciding the amount of twist to put 
into roving, the length of the staple, the 
character of the cotton and the fineness of the 
roving should be considered. Only enough 


145 


146 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


twist should be put in to make the roving run 
well in the frame on which it is made, and draw 
off the next frame. Any twist over this amount 
will cause a loss in production, and will also 
make a weaker yarn. The following tables of 
twist multipliers may be used as a standard in 
calculating the amount of twist required in 
roving: 


Cotton Slubber | Inter. .| Roving Jack 











American Upland 1. ie 1.1 12 


¢ 


Long & Egypt 90 o5 98 1.08 


Sea Island She .80 85 .90 up to 12 hank 





95 “ce “6 29 “ 
1.00-above 20) =" 


The above tables may be used as a basis, and changes made to suit 
the cotton being used. 


ey 


yas 


To find the turns per inch, or twist required. 


Rule: Multiply the square root of the hank 
roving by the standard twist multiplier for the 
frame and kind of cotton used. 


To find the twist to be used on Spinning Frames, the 


following twist multipliers may be used: 


24. 


Yarns 

Hosiery Square root of Counts multiplied by 2.5 to 3 
Lisle 6é 6“ ce 79 66 ce 315 

Filling ce = Se: oy 3 23" te Se 
Warp 6¢ ce “ec 6“ “6 ce 4.75 


To find the production of a spinning frame. 


Rule: Multiply the speed of the spindles by the 
time run in minutes by the number of spindles 
in the frame and by the percentage of production 
and divide by the turns per inch, the inches per 
yard, the yards per hank and by the counts 
being made. 


CALCULATIONS 


It is customary to allow 2% for winding and 5% 
for slippage, etc., on spinning frames. This is 


7% loss or 93% production. 


NUMBERING YARN AND ROVING 


7000 grains would be No. 1 yarn. 


25. To find the number of yarn or roving being made. 


26. 


2: 


Rule: It is customary to measure off a certain 
length of yarn on a reel made for that purpose. 
A roving reel is usually a drum, which is one 
yard in circumference. A yarn reel is usually 
114 yards in circumference. If 840 yards weigh- 
ing 7000 grains be No. 1 hank roving, then 1 yard 


weighing 8.3333 grains would be No. 1 hank 
roving. 


To find hank roving or counts. 
Rule: Multiply the number of yards taken by 
8.3333 and divide by the weight in grains. 


The usual lengths and dividends are: 
Slubber and Intermediate 12 yards 100 dividend 


Roving Frame or Second Inter.30 ‘“ 250 : 
Jack Frame peas 500 
Spinning Frame IAG in iN 1000 cd 


147 


One hank of yarn or roving weighing one pound is 
No. 1 hank roving or No. 1 yarn. 


One hank is 840 yards. 
One pound is 7000 grains. 


Therefore, 840 yards weighing 


28. The usual sizes of rolls used in roving and spinning 
frames are as follows: 


A roll that is %’’ in diameter is 2.748 circumference 
66 “é ‘ 


6 ie “cc “ 3.1416 6é 
“cc “ “ee 66 1 1/16” “ce “ce 3.337 66 
«6 ia (x3 “cc 1h” “cc ce 3 534 6c 
x1 “cc 6c “é 1 3/16 6c“ 66 S708) “ce 


“ce 66 ce (73 yy” 66 (73 3 926 cc 


148 


29. 


30. 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


To test skeins for tensile strength. 


Rule: Reel off 120 yards on yarn reel, tie the 
ends and take the skein off carefully, avoiding all 
straining. See that pointer on dial is at 0, place 
the skein on the hooks and start the machine. 
If the machine is turned by hand, care must be 
taken to always turn at a uniform speed with- 
out any unevenness of motion until the yarn 
breaks. When this occurs, the pointer will 
register the breaking weight in pounds. 


To find the standard breaking strength for carded warp 


yarns. 


aM 


oP. 


Rule: Add the counts of the yarn to 1900 and 
divide the total by the counts. 

Example: 20s yarn. 1900-+-20=1920. 

1920+ 20=96 pounds, breaking strength for 20s 


warp. 


To find the standard breaking strength for combed yarn. 
Rule: Multiply the counts by 4, subtract this 
product from 2600 and divide the remainder by 

the counts. 

Example: 60s combed yarn warp. 60*4=240. 
2600 — 240=2360. 2360+60=39.3 pounds, the 
breaking strength for 60s combed warp yarn. 


To find the standard breaking strength for soft twisted 


or filling yarns. 


Rule: Multiply the counts by 13, subtract the 
product from 1900, divide the remainder by the 
counts. 

Example: What will be the standard breaking 
strength of 40s soft twist or filling yarn? 13 X40= 
520. 1900 — 520 = 1380. 1380 +40 = 34.5 
pounds, breaking strength for 40s soft twist. 


CALCULATIONS 149 


33. To compare the breaks from skein and single thread 
testers. 


Rule: Take the breaking strength for skein test 
in pounds, divide by ten and call the result 
ounces, this will give the breaking strength for 
single thread in ounces. 

Example: Breaking weight of 60s yarn in skein = 
39.3 pounds. 39.3+10=3.93 ounces. 

In reeling a skein on a yarn reel there will be 80 
threads 54’” long, in placing the skeins on the 
breaking machine it will be doubled, making 160 
threads 27” long. The breaking strength of the 
skein would be given in pounds, and of the single 
thread in ounces, so that pounds must be re- 
duced to ounces. 39.3X16=628.8 ounces, 
divided by the number of threads in the skein 
tested, which is 160, will give the strength of 
each thread. 628.8+160=3.93 ounces, break- 


ing strength of single thread in ounces. 


34. To make a comparative break when the numbers or 
counts of yarn differ. 
Rule: First find a standard number for one of 
the numbers or counts of yarn, then find what 
that yarn should break at if changed to another 
number or count. The standard number will 
differ with different kinds of yarn. 


35. To find a standard number for carded warp yarn. 
Rule: Multiply oneofthenumbersorcountof yarn 
by its breaking strength in pounds and subtract 
thenumber or count from the product, the remain- 
der will be the standard number for that yarn. 


36. To find the breaking strength for any other number or 
count of the same. kind of yarn. 
Rule: Add the number or count to be com- 
pared to the standard and divide the result by 
the same number or count. 


150 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 


Example: What should be the breaking strength 
of 62s carded warp yarnif 60s broke at 35 pounds? 
353X.60=2100. 2100 —60=2040 — standard 
breaking strength for 62s carded warp. 
2040+ 62 +62 =33.9 pounds. 


37. To find the standard for combed warp yarn. 


Rule: Multiply the number of count by the 
breaking strength in pounds, and add four times 
the number or count to the product, the result 
will be a standard for that yarn. 


38. To find the breaking strength for any other number or 
count of the same kind of yarn. 


Rule: Subtract four times the number or count 
from the standard and divide the remainder by 
the number or count. 


Example: What should be the breaking strength 
of 62s combed warp yarnif 60s broke at 40 pounds? 
60x40 = 2400. 2400+ (604) =2640 standard. 
2640 — (62 X4) =2392. 2392 +62 =38.58 pounds, 
breaking strength for 62s combed warp yarn. 


39. To find the standard for soft twisted or filling carded 


yarn. 


Rule: Multiply the number or count by the 
breaking strength in pounds, add thirteen times 
the number or count to the product, the result 
will be a standard for that count and break. 


40. To find the breaking strength for any other number or 
count of the same kind of yarn. 


Rule: Subtract thirteen times the number or 
count from the standard and divide the 
remainder by the number or count. 
Example: What should be the breaking strength 
of 42s soft twisted or filling carded yarn if 40s 
broke at 34.5 pounds? 


CALCULATIONS 151 


4034.5 =1380. 1380+(13 40) =1900 standard. 
1900 — (13 X42) = 1354. 1354+42 =32.2 pounds, 
breaking strength for 42s yarn to equal 34.5 
pounds for 40s yarn. 


4|. To find a standard for soft twisted or filling combed 


yarn. 


Rule: Multiply the number or count by the 
breaking strength in pounds, add 7.5 times the 
number or count to the product, the result will 
be the standard for that number and break. 


42. To find the breaking strength for any other number or 
count of the same kind of yarn. 


Rule: Subtract 7.5 times the number or count - 
from the standard and divide by the count. 


Example: What should be the breaking strength 
of 65s soft twisted or filling combed yarn if 60s 
broke at 24.16 pounds? 

60 x 24.16= 1449.6. 1449.6+(7.5 X60) = 1899.6 
standard. 1899.6— (7.565) =1412.1. 
1412.1+65 =21.7 pounds for 65s to equal 24.16 
pounds for 60s. 





Page 
BBASSl-cotrons jee. eee 30 
Allen seed cotton...... 26 


Analyses of sized and unsized 
yarns—purpose of analy- 


Application of size...) ee 114 
Arabia cotton—gossypium 
ar DOreéUiis see ee ree 
Arrowroot starch—photo- 
microscope, Fig. 58-f... .108 


Ashmount cotton.” 2.5234 
ALES, relative size of 
American, Fig. 16.2..272223 
Bale breaker, fie. 25a 38 
breaker—sectional view, 
Figei26:5 EOE De eh 
Beam warper, hie ee ne an To 
Benders Cotton. 946.7 se eee 
Blossomscotton=... een 
Boll weevil passes winter as 
an adult or beetle...... 13 
weevil lose... ne a eee 
Boundary or limit of cotton 
pelts Figs Gcers an, woe i 
Box:lootiy fig aes eee eee ees 
Breaker lapper, Fig. 32..... 45 
lapper—sectional view, 
Fig. 33 


ALCL ATT OWN Setar 


cotton. millseees sae 141 
Card, revolving flat, Fig. 36. 51 


revolving flat—sectional 


View, Lio. eee eee 52 


Page 
Carding. (ie ee 
Ceylon cotton—gossypium 
arboretum...) sae 3 
China cotton—gossypium 
herbaceume.- ieee 3 
Chlorides of calcium, used in 
sizing compounds...... 87 
of zinc, used in sizing com- 
pounds... i575 58) 


of magnesium, zinc and 
calcium, used in sizing 


cCOMPOUNG Ss. a5. 87 
Colloid, detined=.22 eae 101 
Classification and grading... 26 
Cloth, manufacture>.a oe .136 


woven on basis of certain 
construction and weight. 136 


Comber; Fign39) =e 56 
sectional view, Fig. 40.... 57 
Combing. 2224... ee 54 


Commercial types, Pra 
Fig..d doe 
Composition a: SIZE, i. ee 84 
of size; Hig eS6ine eee 
Corn starch pasted, Fig. 59b.110 


starch aan to paste, 
Fig. 59ane error it 

starch— phororn microscope, 
Fig. 58g.. ; 

Corn and_ potato Teen reiee 
commonly used in U. S.. 100 


Cotton field— Frontispiece 
plant, height, €tc:a= eet 
production, Fig. 4, chart.. 7 
bolls, Fig. 5: eeeeeeees 8 


INDEX 


Pages 
Cotton—Continued 
first used by Hindoos, as 
early a§ SU0"B.C........ 6 


production in 500-pound 
gross weight bales, by 


states... 1913 to 1922 
NEUE ie ee Pe, 12 
Compress, Fig 15... 2.4... 22 
spindles in the U. S. in 
D2 ara CtIVE a 2 viet w 75 
yarn, sized, cross section 
WEG 12 OU totus 5. 3 115 
yarn, sized, cross section 
Wiew. Fig. Glam. cs... 116 
yarn, sized, cross section 
Wiew # bie? OUD: 2.5... TL7 


warp and silk filling speci- 
men—woven on a box 


MOOK mtr Oa hot fe. Gs: 132 


warp and silk filling speci- 
men—magnified section, 


PROM ee tet sv, LoL 
absorbs moOIsture......... 140 
TEA) (a i 5 
TLCUN ie cd etna 4 
PIMOUCHON yee eke ee 3 

Crighton opener—vertical, 

Pie ee, ks ciel an ES 


Count, yarnis identified by.. 67 
of warp and filling—method 


OPdetermining.......+-137 
OBBY cotton loom, Fig. 

CUM est po a. fy 127 

Dobby head, Fig. 65........ 128 

NERO oe So ps oi ee woe ess 59 

frame, “Sige4les. Ss 60 
frame—sectional view, Fig. 

Dee oo Oe ek se 5 OL 
rollers—sectional view, 

DprA gra wnt, 64053 


ea lee 


Ta wine ln = fees. 


153 


Page 
{Bae conta of yarns: 5297 


Egyptian cotton—goss- 
ypium barbadense...... 3 


Egyptian cotton, gradenames 31 


Eli Whitney, foresaw advan- 
tage ofaspeedier method 9 


IBRES, cotton, Jength 
and diameter of principal 6 
Hires COLtOn ey as eee es 3 
Flow tests on starches...... 103 

Frictional and tensile strains 

OtaAvaE Dey aris ets) sind, Zz 

IN, modern, Fig: IT)... 19 
{SIN MRAWE Eee Mee lS 
Gin—sectional view, Fig. 12. 20 
Rolletine. von oe ee, 24 


Glycerine used as a softener.. 88 
Gossypium arboreum—Arabia 


arboreum—Ceylon cotton. 3 
barbadense—Peruvian 


CODMO Tee ee ee ae 3 
barbadense—Sea Island 
COLEOM tea caeess ee ace 3 
barbadense—Egyptian 
COtLOn a oa ieee eae 3 
herbaceum—South Asia 
COLO Wee ae were ead 3 


herbaceum—China cotton 3 
herbaceum—India cotton. 3 


hirsutum—Uplands U. 5S. 


Cotton, wee ee 5 
peruvianum—Peruvian 
COCtOn ee, a | 
sand wichense —Sandwich 
Island cotton... ose 3 
tahitense—Pacific Island 
cottons. = 2... ee ea ey: 3 
tahitense—Tahiticotton.. 3 


154 INDEX 


Pages 
Grading of standards, Fig. 18, 32 
Growth, boll weevil, cotton... 13 


Galf Cotton. eee 26 

Gin outfit, automatic air blast 
Fives 13 2.288 eee ee 

Ginnings, $23.20 aoe a 


OLLYHOCK pee: re- 


lated to cotton. 


Hopper Feeder, Fig. 27. aie 4] 
Hiimiditys ae eee 1399 
Hy groseopicitestaaeeneeee Hi 
NDIA _ cotton—gossypium 
herbaceum.,-as.5-c ee 3 
India, outranked by U.S.... 8 


Indians and Hindoos, first to 
recognize the importance 


of cotton. a4 6 
Intermediate biti pristine 

lapper, Fig-34.4., 2-22. 47 

sectional view, Fig. 35.... 48 


Iodine tests with starches. . . 109 


ACK roving machine..... 66 


Jacquard loom, specimen, 


magnified section, Fig. 
Tice chy ee 130 
cotton loom;_Figs 65... 75129 


AP machine, ribbon, Fig. 
SD Oh de: ee er ee 55 
Lap machine, shivers sc)... oie 
Larva, boll weevilavece cee to 
Length and diameter of the 


principal cotton fibres 

(tabled oe ae ere ae 
Lint or cotton fibre, Fig. 14.. 21 
Linting process, aera oe 23 


Load on warp yarns—method 
to determine, a chemical 
analysis! to0e4 puke ele 


Pages 
Loom,. box; Fig? 6S... see 131 
Dobby cotton, Fig 62....127 
harness and reeds........ 123 
plain—specimen of weav- 
ing, Fig. 633% 24. 124 
plain—sectional view, Fig. 
“A (nia Sin ee 125 
Jacquard—specimen of 
weaving, Fig. 66....... 130 
Jatquard,-lie. 656 eee 17? 
Dobby—specimen of weav- 
ing, FigsG4ice eee 128 
AGNESIUM, used in 
sizing compounds..... 87 
Manufacture of cloth.......136 
of yarn sj ee 37 
Macc Jumehcotton/3. eae 30 
Meade cotton 2) 2. a eee 
Memphis cattonso. eee 26 





Mitath, discovered by Greek 


merchant in the village 


of-Mitathi2 =e peas 8) 
Mobile cottons... 22 ee 2h 
Motes ::.:. 442 oe) 
Mule:spinnings. eee a 

spinner, Fig 50. eee 71 
spinning, oldest mechanical 
methodSo55 0. =e fd 

EPS 723 aa eee 3 

New Orleans cotton... 26 


Numbering yarn and roving. 147 


PENER, self-feeding— 
sectional view, Fig. 29 42 


Opener, self-feeding, Fig. 28. 42 


vertical—sectional view, 


Fig. 3122 io eee 


INDEX 155 


Page 
ACIFIC Island cotton— 
gossypium tahitense. 3 


Pasting points of starches. 109 
Pearl starch, insoluble in cold 


water. i 6 eae . 100 
Peelers cottons)... oe) 26 
Peruvian cotton—gossypium 

Permvianuiie yy... ss 3 

cotton—gossypium barba- 

emser hee is. 3 


Photo-Micrographic_ pro- 
cedure in analysis of 
sized and unsized yarns 98 


Physical tests—method in 
analysis of sized and un- 
SIPe ALIS Fs weet eid 96 

Plapting, cates Of... .2.. 5. - iu) 

Pian loom, Pig. oes. e123 

Potato starch—photo-micro- 
SEODGurig-o0d sy... 25. 107 

starch starting to paste, 
Fig. 59e.. 

starch comulecely Basted) 
ihe) a Lt 

Preparation of size......... 113 

Production of cotton—com- 
parison of World’s and 


U. S. production (table) 10 
and quality effected by 


humidity. . ....140 
Pupa, boll ee 13 
Pmepose Of sizing... ..5.....118 

ICE starch — photo- 


microscope, Fig. 58a. .107 


AVS eSHINTING ©. oo%.s8 ses os Gos 


spine, Figo 49......... 69 
Roving machine, Fig. 46.... 66 


machine—sectional view, 
a ON cai oes oho OO 
BMUSSD DINO. wens fb. aa a OD 


Rules for finding speeds, etc.. 141 


Page 
AGO starch—photo-micro- 
scape, fiz. 58e,. 0... 2% 108 


Sandwich Island cotton— 
gossypium sandwichense 3 


Sea Island Cotton—gossypi- 


Uinebarpadense see. 2 3 
Bee Cotton. Che ui ee. eho 
Sakellarridies, used to replace 
DG AMSA yam we ee OL 
Seaarsignd cotton: . a2. 2 ccee Jay 
BEC eek ate eke 28 
BHU CtICS MHI EAGLES og aye 126 
ShOrtestaple cottons... ...e. He: 
Size, Preparation. coe. 11S 
aAppueation sie. eat ee 114 
Sized and unsized yarns— 
AalySes swt eer 
Sizing assistants, commercial 85 
Sizinespurpose. Of... 5. 118 


or slashing of warp yarns.. 81 


Slasher room results seriously 
affect the product and 


GUE UC. sod eae ee 
Slasher and avin reste are 
Cierheal testis ohne oh 90 
Size, composition of.5.-.... 84 
Slasher warper, Fig. 53..... 78 
Dlasherekis. oe cor ee wane 83 
Slashing, operations... 2.2. 82 
ORWAlD iV aAlNS ie eee cad 
Slubber machine, Fig. 44.... 64 
Slubbing and roving........ 63 
South Asia cotton—gossypium 
heppacewnl ioe k as 
Spread of the Mexican cotton 
boll weevil, Fie, 9.27 S16 
Speeds, rules for finding ....141 
DS DRT ye ee eee: 67 
frame—sectional view, Fig. 
Le Ee Rate Hen Neate eterna YAS) 


156 
Page 
frame,thipe Ay eee 68 
TNS. oe ee ere eee 69 
Spindles’. sy) se eee 
Spoolerebig 25 © ese a3 
sectional view, Fig. 52.... 74 


Spots in cloth, to eliminate . 133 
Spools, on skewersinacreel.. 78 
Starch characteristics under 


MICTOSCO PC ve abs ke 106 
StatChin. eee eee ae 100 
Staple cottons. eee on 


AHITI cotton—gossypi- 
um: tahitense.. 23 o= 


Tapioca starch—photo-micro- 


sCOpe,. lta, O8On. 2 te 
Téxascotton...5 2a eee ee ie 
PLAN Dcotton:.=. va 
Uplands U. S. cotton— 
gossypium hirsutum.... 3 


ARP stop motion de- 
Tite +. ee ee ee 133 


Warp automatic stop motion, 
Figs se eee eto 


INDEX 


Weaving... 3 4.52 ee 122 
preparations for weaving.. 76 


Weight of slashed yarns, 
no fixed ‘standard of 
INCTeaSé;. neck cee 120 


Weight or load increase due 
to dry size on the slashed 


Yarns. ..<3.. cote 119 
Weevil larva infected cotton 

boll, Fig. Si, ss 14 
Wheat starch starting to 

paste, Pig, 590 pee eee 110 


starch, completely pasted, 
Fig. 59d iy 


starch, used for sizing ....100 


starch, photo- microscope, 
Fig. 58b 


Whitney sawegin: 09, 
gin, Fig. OY oe. ee 18 


ARN, manufacture of... 37 
Yarn is identified by its 


“count” or number3.... 67 
Yarn, strength of tests ee 120 
Te cotton, + ee 30 


APPENDIX 


Containing additional 


PHOTO-MICROSCOPIC VIEWS 
geCOULTON sy ARN 


158 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 





Fig. 72. CROSS SECTION OF COTTON YARN 


Showing a 15s unsized yarn 


This yarn was not coated—considerable portions of the yarn containing but 
little, if any, size; in fact, this could be properly called “‘partly sized yarn.” 


CROSS SECTIONS of COTTON YARN 159 





Fig. 73. CROSS SECTION OF COTTON YARN 


Showing a 28.5s unsized yarn 


This yarn was not coated—considerable portions of the yarn containing but 


”? 


little, if any, size; in fact this could be properly called “‘partly sized yarn. 


160 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 





Fig. 74. CROSS SECTION OF COTTON YARN 


Showing a 13.5 yarn with good penetration of the size 


This yarn was not coated—considerable portions of the yarn containing but 
little, if any, size; in fact this could be properly called “‘partly sized yarn.” 


CROSS SECTIONS of COTTON YARN 161 





Fig. 75. CROSS SECTION OF COTTON YARN 


Showing a 18s yarn, with a fairly good penetration of the size 


This yarn was not coated—considerable portions of the yarn containing but 
little, if any, size; in fact, this could be properly called “partly sized yarn,” 


162 


TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 





Fig. 76. CROSS SECTION OF COTTON YARN 


A sample of 163 yarn, showing penetration of the size 


This yarn was not coated—considerable portions of the yarn containing but 
little, if any, size; in fact, this could be properly called “partly sized yarn.” 


ay 


CROSS SECTIONS of COTTON YARN 163 





Fig. 77. CROSS SECTION OF COTTON YARN 
Representing the same yarn as Fig. 78, but showing a better penetration of the size. 


> Different softeners were used in sizing the yarn. 
Pad 


This yarn was not coated—considerable portions of the yarn containing but 
little, if any, size; in fact, this could be properly called “‘partly sized yarn.” 


164 TEXTILE HAND-BOOK 





Fig. 78. CROSS SECTION OF COTTON YARN 


Sample of sized 20s yarn 


This yarn was not coated—considerable portions of the yarn containing but 
little, if any, size; in fact, this could be properly called “‘partly sized yarn.” 


CROSS SECTIONS of COTTON YARN 165 





Fig. 79. CROSS SECTION OF COTTON YARN 


Sample of sized 20s yarn 


This yarn was not coated—considerable portions of the yarn containing but 
little, if any, size; in fact, this could be properly called “‘partly sized yarn.” 











3 3125 00066 4751 


SN TS 





